Background Several studies have addressed the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), among Parkinson’s disease (PD) patients in different countries, and the potential association between the infection and PD; the results of these studies were conflicting. The study aims to investigate the prevalence of Toxoplasma infection among sample of Iraqi PD patients. Also, to examine the potential association of age, PD duration, gender, smoking habit, zone of residence and family history of PD, with the prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in PD patients. Patients and Methods Seventy-four PD patients attaining Dr. Saad Al-Witry Neuroscience Hospital in Baghdad/ Iraq for routine follow up, from different Iraqi governorates, were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Detection of T. gondii was performed by detection of anti-Toxoplasma IgG and IgM antibodies in serum by ELISA method. Results The frequency rate of anti-Toxoplasma IgG antibodies in Iraqi PD patients was 43.2% (32/74); while, none of the participants was seropositive for anti-Toxoplasma IgM antibody. Age, PD duration, smoking habit and zone of residences were not shown to be risk factors for Toxoplasma infection in PD patients (P>0.05); meanwhile, female gender and positive family history of PD were shown to have a protective effect ((OR, 0.309; 95% CI, 0.099-0.966; P= 0.043) and (OR, 0.162; 95% CI, 0.037-0.705; P=0.015); respectively). Conclusions The prevalence rate of Toxoplasma infection in Iraqi PD patients is 43.2%, female gender and positive family history of PD might protect against Toxoplasma infection in PD patients. Key words: Iraq, Neurodegeneration, Parkinson’s disease, Prevalence, Toxoplasma gondii
MAOs are isoenzymes that occur in two isoforms Monoamine oxidases A and B. They are flavoproteins found in mitochondria and their role is to catalyze the oxidative deamination of monoamine neurotransmitters to their corresponding aldehydes. Both MAOs play a major role in the human body as they contribute to many illnesses. MAO plays an essential role in both peripheral; and central nervous system through affecting the levels of MAO neurotransmitters. MAO-A is generally concentrated in dopaminergic and norepinephrinergic neurons. Contrary to MAO-B, which is predominantly concentrated in serotoninergic neurons. By-product of MAOs which are aldehyde, ammonia, and H2O2 (which is considered reactive oxygen species) that is toxic at high concentration or it may lead to the generation of free Radicals. Free radicals considered as a starting signal in the generation of cancers. Also, MAO inhibition showed to decrease pressure overload and heart failure. This action is mainly related to the prevention of oxidative stress mainly (H2O2) apoptosis in cardiac muscle and improved bioavailability of Norepinephrine. MAO-A plays a totally different role from MAO—B in renal carcinoma. Ranging from Alzheimer disease, depression to cardiac myopathy, diabetes, kidney diseases, and cancers, MAO-A participates differently from MAO-B in these diseases. Therefore it is necessary to study their separate effect in human diseases and the consequences of their inhibition. In this review, we compare between MAO-A and MAO-B effect from many aspects that includes heart failure, renal carcinoma, breast cancer, esophageal cancer, prostate cancer, bladder cancer, glioma and diabetes. And finally, the role of MAO inhibitors and their effects also have been discussed.
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