Phosphatidylinositol polyphosphate lipids (phosphoinositides) form only a minor pool of membrane phospholipids but are involved in many intracellular signaling processes, including membrane trafficking, cytoskeletal remodeling, and receptor signal transduction. Phosphoinositide properties are largely determined by the characteristics of their headgroup, which at physiological pH is highly charged but also capable of forming hydrogen bonds. Many proteins have developed special binding domains that facilitate specific binding to particular phosphoinositides, while other proteins interact with phosphoinositides via nonspecific electrostatic interactions. Despite its importance, only limited information is available about the ionization properties of phosphoinositides. We have investigated the pH-dependent ionization behavior of all three naturally occurring phosphatidylinositol bisphosphates as well as of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate in mixed phosphoinositide/phosphatidylcholine vesicles using magic angle spinning (31)P NMR spectroscopy. For phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate, where the two phosphomonoester groups are separated by a hydroxyl group at the 4-position, the pH-dependent chemical shift variation can be fitted with a Henderson-Hasselbalch-type formalism, yielding pK(a)(2) values of 6.96 +/- 0.04 and 6.58 +/- 0.04 for the 3- and 5-phosphates, respectively. In contrast, phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate [PI(3,4)P(2)] as well as phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P(2)] show a biphasic pH-dependent ionization behavior that cannot be explained by a Henderson-Hasselbalch-type formalism. This biphasic behavior can be attributed to the sharing of the last remaining proton between the vicinal phosphomonoester groups. At pH 7.0, the overall charge (including the phosphodiester group charge) is found to be -3.96 +/- 0.10 for PI(3,4)P(2) and -3.99 +/- 0.10 for PI(4,5)P(2). While for PI(3,5)P(2) and PI(4,5)P(2) the charges of the individual phosphate groups in the molecule differ, they are equal for PI(3,4)P(2). Differences in the charges of the phosphomonoester groups can be rationalized on the basis of the ability of the respective phosphomonoester group to form intramolecular hydrogen bonds with adjacent hydroxyl groups. Phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate shows an extraordinary complex ionization behavior. While at pH 4 the (31)P NMR peak of the 4-phosphate is found downfield from the other two phosphomonoester group peaks, an increase in pH leads to a crossover of the 4-phosphate, which positions this peak eventually upfield from the other two peaks. As a result, the 4-phosphate group shows a significantly lower charge at pH values between 7 and 9.5 than the other two phosphomonoester groups. The charge of the respective phosphomonoester group in PI(3,4,5)P(3) is lower than the corresponding charge of the phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate phosphomonoester groups, leading to an overall charge of PI(3,4,5)P(3) of -5.05 +/- 0.15 at pH 7.0. The charge of all investigated phosphoinos...

Nitric oxide synthases (NOS) are modular, calmodulin (CaM)-dependent, flavo-heme enzymes that catalyze oxidation of L-arginine to generate nitric oxide (NO) and citrulline. During catalysis, the FMN subdomain cycles between interaction with an NADPH-FAD subdomain to receive electrons, and interaction with an oxygenase domain to deliver electrons to the NOS heme. This process can be described by a three-state, two equilibrium model for the conformation of the FMN subdomain, in which it exists in two distinct bound states (FMN-shielded), and one common unbound state (FMN-deshielded). We studied how each partner subdomain, the FMN redox state, and CaM binding may regulate the conformational equilibria of the FMN module in rat neuronal NOS (nNOS). We utilized four nNOS protein constructs of different subdomain composition, including the isolated FMN subdomain, and determined changes in the conformational state by measuring the degree of FMN shielding by fluorescence, electron paramagnetic resonance, or stopped-flow spectroscopic techniques. Our results suggest: (i) The NADPH-FAD subdomain has a far greater capacity to interact with the FMN subdomain than does the oxygenase domain. (ii) CaM binding has no direct effects on the FMN subdomain. (iii) CaM destabilizes interaction of the FMN subdomain with the NADPH-FAD subdomain but does not measurably increase its interaction with the oxygenase domain. Our results imply that a different set point and CaM regulation exists for either conformational equilibrium of the FMN subdomain. This helps to explain the unique electron transfer and catalytic behaviors of nNOS, relative to other dual-flavin enzymes.

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13C proton decoupled cross-polarization magic-angle spinning nmr spectra of lysozyme are reported as a function of hydration. Increases in hydration level enhance the resolution of the spectra, particularly in the aliphatic region, but has no significant effect on either the rotating frame proton spin-lattice relaxation time or the cross-relaxation time. The enhancement in spectral resolution with hydration is attributed to a decrease in the distribution of isotropic chemical shifts, which reflects a decrease in the distribution of conformational states sampled by the protein. Changes in the distribution of isotropic chemical shifts occur after the addition of water to the charged groups as coverage of the polar side chains and peptide groups takes place. The onset of this behavior occurs at a hydration level of about 0.1-0.2 g water/g protein and is largely complete at about 0.3 g water/g protein, the same hydration range where changes in the heat capacity are observed. That hydrogen exchange of buried protons can occur at hydration levels significantly lower than those at which changes in the distribution of conformational states are first observed suggests that some motions that mediate exchange are already present in the dry protein. The preservation of efficient dipolar coupling indicates that the conformational rearrangements that do occur on hydration are small and do not involve any significant overall expansion of free volume or weakening of interactions that would increase the reorientational freedom of protein groups.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) is a highly conserved protein kinase regulating key cellular functions. Its two isoforms, GSK3α and GSK3β, are encoded by distinct genes. In most tissues the two isoforms are functionally interchangeable, except in the developing embryo where GSK3β is essential. One functional allele of either of the two isoforms is sufficient to maintain normal tissue functions. Both GSK3 isoforms, present in sperm from several species including human, are suggested to play a role in epididymal initiation of sperm motility. Using genetic approaches, we have tested requirement for each of the two GSK3 isoforms in testis and sperm. Both GSK3 isoforms are expressed at high levels during the onset of spermatogenesis. Conditional knockout of GSK3α, but not GSK3β, in developing testicular germ cells in mice results in male infertility. Mice lacking one allele each of GSK3α and GSK3β are fertile. Despite overlapping expression and localization in differentiating spermatids, GSK3β does not substitute for GSK3α. Loss of GSK3α impairs sperm hexokinase activity resulting in low ATP levels. Net adenine nucleotide levels in caudal sperm lacking GSK3α resemble immature caput epididymal sperm. Changes in the association of the protein phosphatase PP1γ2 with its protein interactors occurring during epididymal sperm maturation is impaired in sperm lacking GSK3α. The isoform-specific requirement for GSK3α is likely due to its specific binding partners in the sperm principal piece. Testis and sperm are unique in their specific requirement of GSK3α for normal function and male fertility.

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This article presents a new strategy to engage coordination-driven self-assembly for platinum drug delivery. The self-assembled supramolecular hexagon is conjugated with three equivalents of Pt(iv) prodrugs and displays a superior therapeutic index compared to cisplatin against a panel of human cancer cell lines.