Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) suspended epoxy resin nanocomposites and the corresponding polymer nanocomposites are fabricated. The surface of CNFs is introduced a functional amine terminated groups via silanization, which in situ react with epoxy monomers. This in situ reaction favors the CNFs dispersion and improves the interfacial interaction between CNFs and monomers. Effects of particle loading, surface treatment and operating temperatures of rheological tests on the complex viscosity, storage modulus and loss modulus are systematically studied. Unique rheological phenomena ''a decreased viscosity with a better dispersion'' are observed and explained in terms of the improved filler dispersion quality. Meanwhile, significant increase in the tensile property and storage modulus is observed and related to the better dispersion and the introduced strong interfacial interaction as revealed by SEM imaging. Finally, electrical conductivity is investigated and an unusual deficiency of surface treatment to improve the electrical conductivity is explained by an insulating coating layer.
Reservoirs containing very high total dissolved solids and high hardness make the design of a surfactant polymer (SP) flood extremely difficult because surfactant tends to precipitate and separate under these conditions. Beside divalent ions, Ca2+, Mg2+, presence of iron in the brine can be a challenging issue. Different surfactant formulations are evaluated and incorporate cosurfactants and co-solvents which minimize viscous macroemulsions, promote rapid coalescence under Winsor Type III conditions, and stabilize the chemical solution by reducing precipitation and phase separation. The optimal surfactant formulations were further evaluated in one-dimensional sand packs and coreflood tests using Berea sandstone, reservoir oils, and brines at reservoir temperatures. Using similar injection protocols, 3 pore volumes of surfactant-only system, experimental results show the oil recovery ranging from 45 % to 70% of the residual oil (Sor) after water flooding. The level of surfactant loading is less than 0.5 wt%. A single-well test was conducted to confirm laboratory results in situ in the presence of high-salinity formation water containing 102,300 mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS). The aim of ongoing test is to confirm the effectiveness of the high-salinity surfactant-only formulation (0.46 wt% of surfactant). In this effort, we plan to conduct multiple single-well tests at different wells to minimize the design risks involved for the surfactant pilot test. A pilot test at a sandstone reservoir is scheduled to be performed in July of 2013 to further evaluate the effectiveness of surfactant formulation and address technical issues related to scale-up.
The surfactant screening process to develop an optimum formulation under reservoir conditions is typically time consuming and expensive. Theories and correlations like HLB, R-ratio and packing parameters have been developed. But none of them can quantitatively consider both the effect of oil type, salinity, hardness and temperature, and model microemulsion phase behavior.
This paper uses the physics based Hydrophilic Lipophilic Difference (HLD) Net Average Curvature (NAC) model, and comprehensively demonstrated its capabilities in predicting the optimum formulation and microemulsion phase behavior based on the ambient conditions and surfactant structures. By using HLD equation and quantitatively characterized parameters, four optimum surfactant formulations are designed for target reservoir with high accuracy compared to experimental results. The microemulsion phase behavior is further predicted, and well matched the measured equilibrium interfacial tension. Its predictability is then reinforced by comparing to the empirical Hand's rule phase behavior model. Surfactant flooding sandpack laboratory tests are also interpreted by UTCHEM chemical flooding simulator coupled with the HLD-NAC phase behavior model.
The results indicate the significance of HLD-NAC equation of state in not only shorten the surfactant screening processes for formulators, but also predicting microemulsion phase behavior based on surfactant structure. A compositional reservoir simulator with such an equation of state will increase its predictability and hence help with the design of surfactant formulation.
Reservoirs containing very high total dissolved solids and high hardness make the design of a surfactant polymer (SP) flood extremely difficult because surfactant tends to precipitate and separate under these conditions. Beside divalent ions, Ca2+and Mg2+, the presence of iron in the brine can be a challenging issue. Different surfactant formulations incorporating cosurfactants and co-solvents are studied. These formulations minimize viscous macroemulsions, promote rapid coalescence under Winsor Type III conditions, and stabilize the chemical solution by reducing precipitation and phase separation. The optimal surfactant formulations are further studied in one-dimensional sand packs and coreflood tests using Berea sandstone, reservoir oils, and brines at 42°C. Using similar injection protocols, 0.5 PVs surfactant/polymer, oil recoveries ranging from 50 % to 70% of the residual oil (Sor) after waterflooding are observed. The level of surfactant loading is less than 0.6 wt%. A single-well test is conducted to confirm laboratory results in situ in the presence of high-salinity formation water containing 165,000 mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS). The test is considered to be a technical success and confirms the effectiveness of a high-salinity surfactant-polymer formulation composed of 0.23 wt% of surfactant and 1,800 ppm of polymer loading. Approximately 87% of the residual oil was mobilized.
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