J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Highlights  The article provides a summary on cellular receptors involved in virus immunity.  It presents an overview of the current understanding of inflammasomes complex activation, comparing its different types with special focus on NLRP3.  The article summarizes key findings on viroporins, a novel class of viral proteins and their role in the virus life cycle and host cell interactions.  The article sheds the light on the correlation between viroporins and inflammasomes activation and their possible contribution to aggravated inflammatory cytokines production.  The article proposes targeting inflammasomes in combination with viroporin inhibitors in virus-induced disease as an emerging attractive therapeutic option. Abstract Viroporins are virus encoded proteins that alter membrane permeability and can trigger subsequent cellular signals. Oligomerization of viroporin subunits results in formation of a hydrophilic pore which facilitates ion transport across host cell membranes. These viral channel proteins may be involved in different stages of the virus infection cycle. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f List of abbreviationsAIM Absent in melanoma ASC Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a carboxy-terminal CARD ATP Adenosine triphosphate BMDC Bone marrow derived dendritic cells BMM Bone marrow derived macrophages CARD Caspase activation and recruitment domain CD Cluster of differentiation CoV Coronavirus CSFV Classical swine fever virus DAMPs Danger associated molecular patterns DC Dendritic cells EMCV Encephalomyocarditis virus HCV Hepatitis C virus HIV Human immune deficiency virus LPS Lipopolysaccharide LRR Leucine rich repeats MAL MyD88-adaptor-like MAM Mitochondrial-associated membrane MAVS Mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein MDA5 Melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 MERS Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus MHC Major histocompatibility complex J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f MSU Monosodium urate MyD88 Myeloid differentiation primary response 88 NADPH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NALP NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein NFκB Nuclear factor kappa b NLR Nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat NLRP3 NLR family, pyrin domain containing 3 Nod Nucleotide oligomerization domain PAMP Pathogen associated molecular patterns PRR Pattern recognition receptors PYD Pyrin domain RIG-1 Retinoic acid-inducible gene I RLR RIG-1 like receptor ROS Reactive Oxygen species RSV Respiratory syncytial virus

The beginning of 2020 was marked as the emergence of a COVID-19 outbreak caused by a new coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Currently, there is no vaccine or approved treatment for this infectious virus so the invention of an efficient vaccine is certainly a high priority. Some studies have employed several techniques to facilitate the combination of the immunoinformatics approach and comparative genomic approach in order to determine the potential peptides for designing the T-cell epitopebased peptide vaccine using the 2019-nCoV envelope protein as a target. Via screening the bioimmunoinformatic SARS-CoV2 derived B-cell and T-cell epitopes within the basic immunogenic of SARS-CoV2 proteins, we presented a set of inferred B-cell and T-cell epitopes from the spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins with high antigenicity and without allergenic property or toxic effects. Our findings provide a screened set of epitopes that can be introduced as potential targets for developing peptide vaccines against the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most common sexually transmitted agent worldwide. Early prevention with HPV vaccination is a safe and effective method against this disease. HPV vaccines provided more protection against several oncogenic HPV strains. Three prophylactic HPV vaccines have been approved to target high-risk HPV types and protect against HPV-related disorders. These existing vaccines are based on the recombinant DNA technology and purified L1 protein that is assembled to form HPV empty shells. The prophylactic vaccines are highly immunogenic and can induce production of specific neutralizing antibodies. However, therapeutic vaccines are different from these prophylactic vaccines. They induced cell-mediated immunity against transformed cells, instead of neutralizing antibodies. The second generation of prophylactic HPV vaccines, made from alternative viral components using cost-effective production strategies, is undergoing clinical evaluation. The purpose of this review is to provide a complete and up-to-date review of the types of HPV vaccines and the efficiency of each of them for readers.

The progressive and fatal outbreak of the newly emerged coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, necessitates rigorous collaboration of all health care systems and researchers from all around the world to bring such a devastating pandemic under control. As there is so far no officially approved drug or ideal vaccine for this disease, investigations on this infectious disease are actively pursued. Chitin and chitosan have shown promising results against viral infections. In this review, we first delve into the problematic consequences of viral pandemics followed by an introduction on SARS-CoV-2 taxonomical classification. Then, we elaborate on the immunology of COVID-19. Common antiviral therapies and their related limitations are described and finally, the potential applicability of chitin and chitosan to fight this overwhelming viral pandemic is addressed.

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One of the most common tumors in the world is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and its mortality rates are still on the rise, so addressing it is considered an important challenge for universal health. Despite the various treatments that have been developed over the past decades, the prognosis for advanced liver cancer is still poor. Recently, tumor immunotherapy has opened new opportunities for suppression of tumor progression, recurrence, and metastasis. Besides this, investigation into this malignancy due to high immune checkpoint expression and the change of immunometabolic programming in immune cells and tumor cells is highly considered. Because anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte–associated protein (CTLA)-4 antibodies and anti-programmed cell death protein (PD)-1 antibodies have shown therapeutic effects in various cancers, studies have shown that T cell immunoglobulin mucin-3 (TIM-3), a new immune checkpoint molecule, plays an important role in the development of HCC. In this review, we summarize the recent findings on signal transduction events of TIM-3, its role as a checkpoint target for HCC therapy, and the immunometabolic situation in the progression of HCC.

Aims We investigated the protective effect of chitin micro‐particle (CMP) as an adjuvant against Leishmania infection in BALB/c mice. Methods Mice were immunized subcutaneously with soluble Leishmania antigen (SLA) plus CMP (100 µg SLA + 100 µg CMP/100 µL) as the test group. Three weeks after the last immunization, test and control groups were infected by Leishmania major (L major). Eight weeks post‐infection, evaluation of parasites load in lymph nodes was performed using limiting dilution assay. Then, the spleen cell cytokine response (TNF‐α, IFN‐γ, IL‐4, IL‐10, IL‐17 and IL‐27) to SLA among vaccinated and nonvaccinated groups was investigated using ELISA. Serum levels of IgG1 and IgG2a were measured as well. Results The SLA plus CMP group demonstrated the protection. The responses included reduced lesion formation and lower parasite load. Also, in comparison with control group higher levels of IFN‐γ and, IL‐10 in the culture of spleen cells, and lower levels of IgG1 in sera were seen in SLA plus CMP group. Conclusion The data supported the possibility of using CMP as a suitable adjuvant in Leishmania vaccination.

Background: We aimed to compare parasite burden in BALB/c mice, using three methods including the direct fluorescent microscopic using recombinant Leishmania major expressing an enhanced green fluorescent protein, limiting dilution assay, and real-time PCR technique. Methods: The current study was carried out in 2018, to induce stable enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) production. Initially, the linearized DNA expression cassette (pLEXSY-egfp-sat2) was integrated into the ssu locus of L. major. The expression of EGFP in recombinant parasite was analyzed using direct fluorescent microscopy. Afterward, BALB/c mice were infected with the L. majorEGFP, and the infection was evaluated in the foot-pads and inguinal lymph-nodes using an in vivo imaging system. Subsequently, eight BALB/c mice were infected with L. majorEGFP, and the results of evaluating parasite burden by a SYBR-Green based real-time PCR analysis and the limiting dilution assays were compared to the results obtained from the direct fluorescent microscopy. Results: The results of the direct fluorescent microscopy showed that EGFP gene stably was expressed in parasites. Moreover, the in vivo imaging analysis of foot-pad lesions revealed that the infection caused by L. majorEGFP was progressing over time. Additionally, significant correlations were observed between the results of parasite burden assay using the direct fluorescent microscopy and either limiting dilution assay (r=0.976, P<0.0001) or quantitative real-time PCR assay (r=0.857, P<0.001). Conclusion: Ultimately, the utilization of the direct fluorescent microscopy by employing a stable EGFP-expressing L. major is a suitable substitution for the existing methods to quantify parasite burden.