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Challenges to the future development of Iran's protected areas system Since the1950s, there has been a continuous increase in the number and coverage of protected areas (PAs) in Iran, and in total 253 PAs have been declared that cover 10.12% of the country's area. This paper reviews literature addressing Iran's PAs, examines what is known about them, highlights the challenges and lessons learned, and identifies areas where more research is needed. The PA system in Iran is criticized because of (1) shortages of manpower, equipment, and financial resources; (2) de jure PAs that are often implemented as de facto reserves; (3) lack of national biodiversity indicators and objective monitoring processes; and (4) limited public participation and conflict between people over PAs. To improve, Iran's PAs system needs to be realistically supported by policies and planning instruments. In addition, the implementation of active management to restore habitat, increase education and awareness, shift practices towards the guidelines of international organizations, build capacity, and improve management and co-management by local communities needs to occur.

The requirement to assess the management effectiveness (ME) in protected areas (PAs) is increasing around the world to help improve management and accountability. An evaluation of ME for Khojir National Park (KNP), one of the Iran's oldest PAs, was conducted using a multi-method approach that consisted of structured interviews, open interviews, and site visits. This was the first ME evaluation in Iran. The structured interview was based on the management effectiveness tracking tool methodology. KNP received an average score of 43 %, which is lower than the global average, illustrating that its general management was in the low-intermediate level. The indices of legal status, resource inventory, planning for land and water use, regulations, and objectives received the highest average scores, whereas education and awareness, community co-management, regular work plan, boundary demarcation, visitor facilities, budget sources, staff training, protection systems, and management plan received the lowest ones. The management system of KNP was generally established, but many problems of the management still need to be resolved. To improve ME, some countermeasures should be taken, such as increasing funding, strengthening capacity building, planning, and adaptive management, and implementing community participation.

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One of the challenges for managers is to ensure the long‐term sustainability of wetlands by protecting their ecological values against natural and human pressures. This study has evaluated the past vulnerability status of Gavkhooni International Wetland, Isfahan, Iran, using a combination of GIS and multicriteria spatial decision support systems (MC‐SDSS) processes, to propose restoration scenarios. Three scenarios were developed from criteria established using field studies and expert opinion: (1) wetland restoration to preserve existing water bodies, (2) determination of susceptible regions as habitat replacement for aquatic communities, and (3) a combination of the two previous scenarios. Finally, a map was developed classifying the regions into five categories by area of priority. The northern regions of the wetland were prioritized based on the results of the first and the second scenarios. The third scenario provided the highest opportunity to obtain an optimistic state, that is, normal conditions, for the wetland marginal regions, especially in the central region (between the east and west). In a pessimistic state and optimistic state of the third scenario, almost all parts of the center to the south of the wetland show the lowest priority restoration scenarios. According to the different scenarios, the central regions of the wetland are less affected by agricultural activities and human settlements. In general, the results show that the Gavkhooni Wetland is unstable based on functional, environmental, social and economic conditions. According to the criteria and the MC‐SDSS model, the government can adopt and implement the necessary policies and programs to improve the condition of the wetland.