Hypothalamic glucosensing, which involves the detection of glucose concentration changes by brain cells and subsequent release of orexigenic or anorexigenic neuropeptides, is a crucial process that regulates feeding behavior. Arcuate nucleus (AN) neurons are classically thought to be responsible for hypothalamic glucosensing through a direct sensing mechanism; however, recent data has shown a metabolic interaction between tanycytes and AN neurons through lactate that may also be contributing to this process. Monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) is the main isoform expressed by tanycytes, which could facilitate lactate release to hypothalamic AN neurons. We hypothesize that MCT1 inhibition could alter the metabolic coupling between tanycytes and AN neurons, altering feeding behavior. To test this, we inhibited MCT1 expression using adenovirus-mediated transfection of a shRNA into the third ventricle, transducing ependymal wall cells and tanycytes. Neuropeptide expression and feeding behavior were measured in MCT1-inhibited animals after intracerebroventricular glucose administration following a fasting period. Results showed a loss in glucose regulation of orexigenic neuropeptides and an abnormal expression of anorexigenic neuropeptides in response to fasting. This was accompanied by an increase in food intake and in body weight gain. Taken together, these results indicate that MCT1 expression in tanycytes plays a role in feeding behavior regulation.

Glucose is a key modulator of feeding behavior. By acting in peripheral tissues and in the central nervous system, it directly controls the secretion of hormones and neuropeptides and modulates the activity of the autonomic nervous system. GLUT2 is required for several glucoregulatory responses in the brain, including feeding behavior, and is localized in the hypothalamus and brainstem, which are the main centers that control this behavior. In the hypothalamus, GLUT2 has been detected in glial cells, known as tanycytes, which line the basal walls of the third ventricle (3V). This study aimed to clarify the role of GLUT2 expression in tanycytes in feeding behavior using 3V injections of an adenovirus encoding a shRNA against GLUT2 and the reporter EGFP (Ad‐shGLUT2). Efficient in vivo GLUT2 knockdown in rat hypothalamic tissue was demonstrated by qPCR and Western blot analyses. Specificity of cell transduction in the hypothalamus and brainstem was evaluated by EGFP‐fluorescence and immunohistochemistry, which showed EGFP expression specifically in ependymal cells, including tanycytes. The altered mRNA levels of both orexigenic and anorexigenic neuropeptides suggested a loss of response to increased glucose in the 3V. Feeding behavior analysis in the fasting‐feeding transition revealed that GLUT2‐knockdown rats had increased food intake and body weight, suggesting an inhibitory effect on satiety. Taken together, suppression of GLUT2 expression in tanycytes disrupted the hypothalamic glucosensing mechanism, which altered the feeding behavior.

Glucokinase (GK), the hexokinase involved in glucose sensing in pancreatic β cells, is also expressed in hypothalamic tanycytes, which cover the ventricular walls of the basal hypothalamus and are implicated in an indirect control of neuronal activity by glucose. Previously, we demonstrated that GK was preferentially localized in tanycyte nuclei in euglycemic rats, which has been reported in hepatocytes and is suggestive of the presence of the GK regulatory protein, GKRP. In the present study, GK intracellular localization in hypothalamic and hepatic tissues of the same rats under several glycemic conditions was compared using confocal microscopy and Western blot analysis. In the hypothalamus, increased GK nuclear localization was observed in hyperglycemic conditions; however, it was primarily localized in the cytoplasm in hepatic tissue under the same conditions. Both GK and GKRP were next cloned from primary cultures of tanycytes. Expression of GK by Escherichia coli revealed a functional cooperative protein with a S0.5 of 10 mM. GKRP, expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, inhibited GK activity in vitro with a Ki 0.2 µM. We also demonstrated increased nuclear reactivity of both GK and GKRP in response to high glucose concentrations in tanycyte cultures. These data were confirmed using Western blot analysis of nuclear extracts. Results indicate that GK undergoes short-term regulation by nuclear compartmentalization. Thus, in tanycytes, GK can act as a molecular switch to arrest cellular responses to increased glucose.

Glucokinase (GK), the hexokinase involved in glucosensing in pancreatic β-cells, is also expressed in arcuate nucleus (AN) neurons and hypothalamic tanycytes, the cells that surround the basal third ventricle (3V). Several lines of evidence suggest that tanycytes may be involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis. Tanycytes have extended cell processes that contact the feeding-regulating neurons in the AN, particularly, agouti-related protein (AgRP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons. In this study, we developed an adenovirus expressing GK shRNA to inhibit GK expression in vivo. When injected into the 3V of rats, this adenovirus preferentially transduced tanycytes. qRT-PCR and Western blot assays confirmed GK mRNA and protein levels were lower in GK knockdown animals compared to the controls. In response to an intracerebroventricular glucose injection, the mRNA levels of anorexigenic POMC and CART and orexigenic AgRP and NPY neuropeptides were altered in GK knockdown animals. Similarly, food intake, meal duration, frequency of eating events and the cumulative eating time were increased, whereas the intervals between meals were decreased in GK knockdown rats, suggesting a decrease in satiety. Thus, GK expression in the ventricular cells appears to play an important role in feeding behavior.

Tanycytes are hypothalamic radial glia-like cells that form the basal wall of the third ventricle (3V) where they sense glucose and modulate neighboring neuronal activity to control feeding behavior. This role requires the coupling of hypothalamic cells since transient decreased hypothalamic Cx43 expression inhibits the increase of brain glucose-induced insulin secretion. Tanycytes have been postulated as possible hypothalamic neuronal precursors due to their privileged position in the hypothalamus that allows them to detect mitogenic signals and because they share the markers and characteristics of neuronal precursors located in other neurogenic niches, including the formation of coupled networks through connexins. Using wild-type (WT), Cx30−/– and Cx30−/–, Cx43fl/fl:glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-Cre (double knockout, dKO) mouse lines, we demonstrated that tanycytes are highly coupled to each other and also give rise to a panglial network specifically through Cx43. Using the human GFAP (hGFAP)-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) transgenic mouse line, we provided evidence that the main parenchymal-coupled cells were astrocytes. In addition, electrophysiological parameters, such as membrane resistance, were altered when Cx43 was genetically absent or pharmacologically inhibited. Finally, in the dKO mouse line, we detected a significant decrease in the number of hypothalamic proliferative parenchymal cells. Our results demonstrate the importance of Cx43 in tanycyte homotypic and panglial coupling and show that Cx43 function influences the proliferative potential of hypothalamic cells.

Objectives: Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells (MSC) are promising therapeutic tools for inflammatory diseases due to their potent immunoregulatory capacities. Their suppressive activity mainly depends on inflammatory cues that have been recently associated with changes in MSC bioenergetic status towards a glycolytic metabolism. However, the molecular mechanisms behind this metabolic reprogramming and its impact on MSC therapeutic properties have not been investigated. Methods: Human and murine-derived MSC were metabolically reprogramed using pro-inflammatory cytokines, an inhibitor of ATP synthase (oligomycin), or 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG). The immunosuppressive activity of these cells was tested in vitro using co-culture experiments with pro-inflammatory T cells and in vivo with the Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) and the Graph versus Host Disease (GVHD) murine models. Results: We found that the oligomycin-mediated pro-glycolytic switch of MSC significantly enhanced their immunosuppressive properties in vitro . Conversely, glycolysis inhibition using 2DG significantly reduced MSC immunoregulatory effects. Moreover, in vivo , MSC glycolytic reprogramming significantly increased their therapeutic benefit in the DTH and GVHD mouse models. Finally, we demonstrated that the MSC glycolytic switch effect partly depends on the activation of the AMPK signaling pathway. Conclusion: Altogether, our findings show that AMPK-dependent glycolytic reprogramming of MSC using an ATP synthase inhibitor contributes to their immunosuppressive and therapeutic functions, and suggest that pro-glycolytic drugs might be used to improve MSC-based therapy.

Feeding behavior regulation is a complex process, which depends on the central integration of different signals, such as glucose, leptin, and ghrelin. Recent studies have shown that glial cells known as tanycytes that border the basal third ventricle (3V) detect glucose and then use glucose-derived signaling to inform energy status to arcuate nucleus (ARC) neurons to regulate feeding behavior. Monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) 1 and MCT4 are localized in the cellular processes of tanycytes, which could facilitate monocarboxylate release to orexigenic and anorexigenic neurons. We hypothesize that MCT1 and MCT4 inhibitions could alter the metabolic communication between tanycytes and ARC neurons, affecting feeding behavior. We have previously shown that MCT1 knockdown rats eat more and exhibit altered satiety parameters. Here, we generate MCT4 knockdown rats and MCT1-MCT4 double knockdown rats using adenovirus-mediated transduction of a shRNA into the 3V. Feeding behavior was evaluated in MCT4 and double knockdown animals, and neuropeptide expression in response to intracerebroventricular glucose administration was measured. MCT4 inhibition produced a decrease in food intake, contrary to double knockdown. MCT4 inhibition was accompanied by a decrease in eating rate and mean meal size and an increase in mean meal duration, parameters that are not changed in the double knockdown animals with exception of eating rate. Finally, we observed a loss in glucose regulation of orexigenic neuropeptides and abnormal expression of anorexigenic neuropeptides in response to fasting when these transporters are inhibited. Taken together, these results indicate that MCT1 and MCT4 expressions in tanycytes play a role in feeding behavior regulation.

Previous studies indicate that the activity of hypothalamic POMC neurons can be regulated by glucose via intracellular mechanisms, but its regulation by lactate is poorly understood. In addition to its energetic role, lactate acts as a signaling molecule. In this study, we evaluated the function and location of the lactate receptor, hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1 (HCAR1). We used a conditional genetic approach to label POMC neurons and evaluated their sensitivity to lactate using patch-clamp recordings. l-Lactate and 3-chloro-5-hydroxybenzoic acid (3Cl-HBA), HCAR1 specific agonist depolarized POMC neurons and the increase in excitability was abolished by pertussis toxin (PTX), indicating the involvement of Gαi/o-protein-coupled receptors. In addition, the depolarization of a subset of POMC neurons was sensitive to α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate (4-CIN), a lactate transporter blocker, suggesting that the depolarization induced by l-lactate can also occur by direct intracellular action. Surprisingly, HCAR1 was not detected in POMC neurons, but instead localized in astrocytes. These results suggest a new lactate-mediated mechanism for astrocyte-neuron intercellular communication.