In a broad sense, the concept of social stigmatization (from the Greek word “stigma”, or sign) refers to the attitude of social disapproval and the negative reception of a specific group of people due to the characteristic features of this group. The problem of stigma affects many people, and it is also present in medicine and affects people with dementia. Social stigma of people with dementia is a worldwide problem. The severity of this phenomenon depends on several factors, including gender, age, level of education, religiosity, cultural differences, and the severity of cognitive disorders. Stigmatization can have numerous negative consequences. It leads to rejection, discrimination, and exclusion of stigmatized people from participation in various areas of social life. It also affects close relatives. The main goal of this review paper is to present the problem of stigma among people with dementia, discuss the results of represented research that deals with this issue, to approximate the elements that make up this process, and to present the negative consequences of stigma. Detailed knowledge of this phenomenon provides opportunity to reduce the extent of stigma and improve the quality of life people suffering from dementia. It is worth emphasizing the role of an individual approach to the patient and the need to educate the public about dementia.

The meaning of the term social stigma has changed over the years. The history of this concept dates back to ancient times. Currently, social stigma is defined as the attitude of discrimination, disapproval, or negative perception of a given group due to the properties and features it represents. Stigmatization concerns the physical and mental spheres of an individual. The burden of stigma affects many people. Moreover, it is present in medicine, affects people with COVID-19 and presents a challenge for the health care system. Social stigma of individuals with COVID-19 is a worldwide problem and can be compounded by including race, profession, social status, religious identity, and vaccination status. Stigmatization may lead to negative consequences, including discrimination and social rejection of stigmatized individuals. In addition, it affects the close relatives of stigmatized individuals. The main goal of this review paper is to present the problem of stigma among patients suffering from COVID-19 and to list major challenges for the health care system in solving this problem. We undertook a review of literature published in PubMed systems, Scopus and Google Scholar. The results indicate that the stigmatization bears many negative consequences including limited access to health care, potential impact on health status of patients and worse outcomes. Early identification of the problem may help to implement appropriate strategies to combat the stigma.

Objectives. The aim of the study is to determine the level and to compare the physical activity of students of the Medical University (MU) in Lublin and the University of Technology (BUT) in Bialystok, Poland, and the University of Beira Interior (UBI) in Covilhã, Portugal. Materials and method. A group of 823 people were examined: 108 students of the Medical University of Lublin, 118 students of Bialystok University of Technology, and 597 students of the University of Beira Interior in Covilhã. The study examined the level of student activity using the IPAQ questionnaire. Results. With reference to people (both women and men) studying at the MU in Lublin and at UBI in Portugal, the activity level was high, 60.2% and 51.8% respectively. In the group of BUT students sufficient activity prevailed-30.5% of the respondents. Insufficient activity level was characterized by 2.8% of MU students, 23.7% of BUT students and 12.7% of surveyed Portuguese students. Considering the gender of respondents, statistically significant differences in activity levels among Portuguese students were observed. A sufficient level of physical activity was characterized by a higher percentage of men than women, 37.5% and 33.8%, respectively. Conclusions. Students of the Medical University (MU), as well as Portuguese students, were characterized by a high level of physical activity, while students of the Bialystok University of Technology (BUT) had an adequate level of physical activity. Among women studying at MU, BUT and UBI in Portugal, the highest average energy expenditure values were related to walking effort. Among both women and men studying at MU, BUT and at UBI in Portugal, the lowest average values of energy consumption were for moderate activity. Students from MU spent less time sitting during one working day than BUT andUBI Portuguese students.