SUMMARY Although the function of the extracellular region of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) through its interactions with PD-1 on T cells is well studied, little is understood regarding the intracellular domain of PD-L1. Here, we outline a major role for PD-L1 intracellular signaling in the control of dendritic cell (DC) migration from the skin to the draining lymph node (dLN). Using a mutant mouse model, we identify a TSS signaling motif within the intracellular domain of PD-L1. The TSS motif proves critical for chemokine-mediated DC migration to the dLN during inflammation. This loss of DC migration, in the PD-L1 TSS mutant, leads to a significant decline in T cell priming when DC trafficking is required for antigen delivery to the dLN. Finally, the TSS motif is required for chemokine receptor signaling downstream of the Gα subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein complex, ERK phosphorylation, and actin polymerization in DCs.
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection to a pregnant woman can be vertically transmitted to the fetus via the placenta leading to Congenital Zika syndrome. This is characterized by microcephaly, retinal defects, and intrauterine growth retardation. ZIKV induces placental trophoblast apoptosis leading to severe abnormalities in the growth and development of the fetus. However, the molecular mechanism behind ZIKV-induced apoptosis in placental trophoblasts remains unclear. We hypothesize that ZIKV infection induces endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the trophoblasts, and sustained ER stress results in apoptosis. HTR-8 (HTR-8/SVneo), a human normal immortalized trophoblast cell and human choriocarcinoma-derived cell lines (JEG-3 and JAR) were infected with ZIKV. Biochemical and structural markers of apoptosis like caspase 3/7 activity and percent apoptotic nuclear morphological changes, respectively were assessed. ZIKV infection in placental trophoblasts showed an increase in the levels of CHOP mRNA and protein expression, which is an inducer of apoptosis. Next, we also observed increased levels of ER stress markers such as phosphorylated forms of inositol-requiring transmembrane kinase/endoribonuclease 1α (P-IRE1α), and its downstream target, the spliced form of XBP1 mRNA, phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (P-eIF2α), and activation of cJun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) after 16–24 h of ZIKV infection in trophoblasts. Inhibition of JNK or pan-caspases using small molecule inhibitors significantly prevented ZIKV-induced apoptosis in trophoblasts. Further, JNK inhibition also reduced XBP1 mRNA splicing and viral E protein staining in ZIKV infected cells. In conclusion, the mechanism of ZIKV-induced placental trophoblast apoptosis involves the activation of ER stress and JNK activation, and the inhibition of JNK dramatically prevents ZIKV-induced trophoblast apoptosis.
Zika virus (ZIKV) infection in pregnant woman can be vertically transmitted to the fetus via the placenta leading to Congenital Zika syndrome (CZS). CZS is characterized by microcephaly, retinal defects and intrauterine growth retardation. ZIKV also causes placental pathology leading to severe compromise in the growth and development of the fetus. Further, the molecular mechanism behind ZIKV‐induced apoptosis in placental trophoblasts is unknown. We hypothesize that accumulation of viral proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum could lead to sustained endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) and trigger apoptotic events. Methods HTR‐8, a human normal immortalized trophoblast cell and human choriocarcinoma derived cell lines (JEG‐3 and JAR) were infected with 0.1–1MOI ZIKV. Apoptosis was assessed by characteristic nuclear morphology staining with DAPI and caspase 3/7 activity. Results We observed an increase in the mRNA levels of CHOP and the spliced form of XBP1 gene, 16–24h post infection in trophoblast. We also observed an increase in the levels of ER stress markers such as p‐IRE1α, p‐eif2α, and activation of c‐Jun N‐terminal Kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) after 16–24h of ZIKV infection in trophoblast. As prolonged ER stress can cause apoptosis, we observed a dramatic increase in trophoblast apoptosis 48h post infection. Mechanistically, inhibition of JNK by SP600125 or pan caspase by Z‐VAD‐FMK significantly blocked ZIKV‐induced apoptosis in trophoblast. In conclusion, the mechanism of ZIKV‐induced placental trophoblast apoptosis involves the activation of ER stress and MAPK activation. Support or Funding Information NIH: P20GM104320, Layman Seed award, UNL, Food for Health Research Initiative, UNL
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