Perovskite-based solar cells have attracted much recent research interest with efficiency approaching 20%. While various combinations of material parameters and processing conditions are attempted for improved performance, there is still a lack of understanding in terms of the basic device physics and functional parameters that control the efficiency. Here we show that perovskite-based solar cells have two universal features: an ideality factor close to two and a space-charge-limited current regime. Through detailed numerical modeling, we identify the mechanisms that lead to these universal features. Our model predictions are supported by experimental results on solar cells fabricated at five different laboratories using different materials and processing conditions. Indeed, this work unravels the fundamental operation principle of perovskite-based solar cells, suggests ways to improve the eventual performance, and serves as a benchmark to which experimental results from various laboratories can be compared.

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Superhydrophobicity in nature is the result of multiscale (hierarchical) roughness which consists of nano-asperities superimposed on micrometer scale roughness. A low-cost superhydrophobic surface was prepared by depositing soot on Vaseline coated glass substrates. The surface was rapidly prepared without any sophisticated fabrication facilities. The surface exhibited a remarkably high water contact angle of 161 deg and a roll-off angle of 3 deg. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) of the surface was done which revealed a very rough surface. The roughness features with nano-asperities superimposed on micrometer scale roughness enhance the water repellency. The micrometer scale peaks on the surface support the water droplet in a Cassie–Baxter state with the nano-asperities sheltering a composite interface below the droplet. The work of adhesion for the surface was also low at 18 nJ. The study will enable easy preparation of a cost effective superhydrophobic surface.