The presence of novel or degraded communication sounds likely results in activation of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons increasing release of ACh onto presynaptic and postsynaptic nAChRs in primary auditory cortex (A1). nAChR subtypes include high-affinity heteromeric nAChRs commonly composed of a4 and b2 subunits and low-affinity homomeric nAChRs composed of a7 subunits. In young male FBN rats, we detail the following: (1) the distribution/expression of nAChR subunit transcripts in excitatory (VGluT1) and inhibitory (VGAT) neurons across A1 layers; (2) heteromeric nAChR binding across A1 layers; and (3) nAChR excitability in A1 layer (L) 5 cells. In aged rats, we detailed the impact of aging on A1 nAChR subunit expression across layers, heteromeric nAChR receptor binding, and nAChR excitability of A1 L5 cells. A majority of A1 cells coexpressed transcripts for b2 and a4 with or without a7, while dispersed subpopulations expressed b2 and a7 or a7 alone. nAChR subunit transcripts were expressed in young excitatory and inhibitory neurons across L2-L6. Transcript abundance varied across layers, and was highest for b2 and a4. Significant age-related decreases in nAChR subunit transcript expression (message) and receptor binding (protein) were observed in L2-6, most pronounced in infragranular layers. In vitro patch-clamp recordings from L5B pyramidal output neurons showed age-related nAChR subunit-selective reductions in postsynaptic responses to ACh. Age-related losses of nAChR subunits likely impact ways in which A1 neurons respond to ACh release. While the elderly require additional resources to disambiguate degraded speech codes, resources mediated by nAChRs may be compromised with aging.
Tinnitus affects roughly 15-20% of the population while severely impacting 10% of those afflicted. Tinnitus pathology is multifactorial, generally initiated by damage to the auditory periphery, resulting in a cascade of maladaptive plastic changes at multiple levels of the central auditory neuraxis as well as limbic and non-auditory cortical centers. Using a well-established condition-suppression model of tinnitus, we measured tinnitus-related changes in the microcircuits of excitatory/inhibitory neurons onto layer 5 pyramidal neurons (PNs), as well as changes in the excitability of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) neurons in primary auditory cortex (A1). Patch-clamp recordings from PNs in A1 slices showed tinnitus-related increases in spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) and decreases in spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs). Both measures were directly correlated to the rat's behavioral evidence of tinnitus. Tinnitus-related changes in PN excitability were independent of changes in A1 excitatory or inhibitory cell numbers. VIP neurons, part of an A1 local circuit that can disinhibit layer 5 PNs, showed significant tinnitus-related increases in excitability that directly correlated with the rat's behavioral tinnitus score. That PN and VIP changes directly correlated to tinnitus behavior, suggests an essential role in A1 tinnitus pathology. Tinnitus-related A1 changes were similar to findings in studies of neuropathic pain in somatosensory cortex suggesting a common pathology of these troublesome perceptual impairments. Improved understanding between excitatory, inhibitory and disinhibitory sensory cortical circuits can serve as a model for testing therapeutic approaches to the treatment of tinnitus and chronic pain.
Paddy is one of the principal food crops in Nepal. Most of the Nepalese farmers are currently utilizing inputs in an unscientific manner due to lack of information about the most efficient use of resources, resulting in low yield and efficiency. This study was conducted for the analysis of profitability and effect of factors of production in paddy cultivation in Morang district of Nepal. A sample of 120 paddy growers were selected from 4350 paddy farmers registered in PMAMP, Rice zone, Morang using Simple Random Sampling Technique. Primary and secondary data were collected using face-to-face interview schedule and reviewing different articles and journals. Data collected were entered, tabulated and analyzed using MS-Excel and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics such as mean, frequency, and percentage were used to study farmer's socio-economic characteristics while inferential statistics was used in analysing the influence of production factors using Cobb-Douglas production function. The total cost of paddy production, gross income, and net income per hectare was found to be Rs.70,082.65, Rs.1,11,171.23 and Rs.41,088.57 respectively whereas productivity of paddy was found to be 4.32 MT/ha. The BC ratio 1.66 indicates that it is a profitable enterprise. The labor cost contributed most to the variable cost with 45.48%. Moreover, independent variables such as seed, labor and mechanical power contributed significantly to the yield. Therefore, paddy farming should be encouraged among farmers by increasing the availability and affordability of inputs while also improving food security.
The present investigation was conducted to analyze efficacy of different commercially available fungicides against the Fusarium spp. causing rhizome rot of ginger adopting poison food technique. The experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with 8 treatment and 3 replications. The fungicides SAAF (Carbendazim 12% WP + Mancozeb WP 63%), Nativo (Tebuconazole 50% WP + Trifloxystrobin 25% WP), Caviet (Tebuconazole 25% WP), Kingsin M (Thiophanate –methyl 70%WP), Moximate (Cymoxil 8% WP + Mancozeb 64% WP), Custodia (Azoxystrobin 11% SC + Tebuconazole 18.3% SC), Melody duo (Iprovalicarp 5.5% WP + Probineb 61.5% WP) were used as a treatment for poison food technique. The results of this study indicated that there was a highly significant difference (p≤0.001) among the treatments in mycelial growth of the pathogen and inhibition of pathogen by different fungicides. The maximum mycelial growth of pathogen was observed on control plate (79.67mm) which was followed by melody duo and Moximate with the radial mycelial growth of 57.33mm and 55.83mm, respectively. Whereas the least mycelial growth of pathogen was recorded in SAAF (0.00mm) which was followed by Nativo, Custodia, Caviet and Kingsin M with the radial mycelial growth of 10.33mm, 14.83mm, 15.50, 21.83mm, respectively. Therefore, SAAF fully inhibited the growth of pathogen and found most effective which was followed by Nativo, Custodia, and Caviet with 87.04%, 81.40%, 80.55%, respectively.
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