As a result of the divorce revolution, more children grow up in complex families. Yet, we know little about how family complexity affects relationships when children are adults and parents are ageing. In this article, we use unique survey data to test fundamental ideas about intergenerational ties: the role of biology, partnerships (marriage and cohabitation), residence, and selection. The survey used a register-based oversample of Dutch adults who grew up in nonstandard families, collected data among adult children and their parent figures, and used a double multi-actor design in which adult children reported on their parents and parents reported on their children. Using random-and fixed-effects models, we confirm most hypotheses but the results are highly gendered. For fathers, we find evidence for a partnership premium and no disadvantage of being a stepparent once the length of residence is adjusted. For mothers, the partnership premium is weaker but the effect of biology is strong: stepmotherstepchild ties are much weaker, even after taking residence patterns into account. Biological mothers are the primary kinkeepers, and for fathers of any type, their relationship to children depends on their partnership to the biological mother. Within-family comparisons suggest that selection into divorce and remarriage do not explain these disadvantages.

executed by a collaboration between a team of researchers at the University of Amsterdam (UvA) and a team of researchers at Statistics Netherlands. Matthijs Kalmijn is a full Professor of Sociology at the University of Amsterdam. His main research fields are family, life course, and intergenerational relationships. He was also codirector of several large-scale surveys in the Netherlands, including the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study and the Netherlands Longitudinal Lifecourse Study. Kalmijn has a PhD from UCLA (1991). Katya Ivanova is a postdoctoral researcher at the Sociology department of University of Amsterdam. Her primary research interests are in the field of family sociology, with a particular focus on the implications of family complexity for intergenerational ties and individual well-being. She received her PhD in Sociology from University of Groningen as a member of the Interuniversity Center for Social Science Theory and Methodology. Ruben van Gaalen is a senior researcher at Statistics Netherlands and a professor by special appointment of register analyses of life course dynamics at the sociology department, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Amsterdam. He is interested in demographic behaviour, life course dynamics, parent-child relationships, and social inequality and has published widely in the area of family studies in journals like Journal of Family Issues, Journal of Marriage and Family, and Advances in Life Course Research. Suzanne de Leeuw is a PhD student at the Sociology department of the University of Amsterdam. Her main research interests are intergenerational transmission and mobility, divorce and inequality. Her project on the intergenerational transmission process in nonintact families is embedded in the ERC Advanced Grant 'Family Complexity'. Design and content of the OKiN survey 3 Kirsten van Houdt is a PhD student at the Sociology department of University of Amsterdam. Her main research interests are family, intergenerational relationships, and divorce. Her project on adult parent-child relationships is embedded in the ERC Advanced Grant 'Family Complexity'. Frederique van Spijker is a junior researcher at the department of Research, Information and Statistics of the municipality of Amsterdam. Maaike Hornstra is a PhD student at the Sociology department of University of Amsterdam. Her current research interests lie in the field of family sociology with a particular focus on divorce and intergenerational relationships. Her PhD project on relationships in adult childparent networks is embedded in the ERC Advanced grant 'Family Complexity'.

We examined adult children's concurrent ties to biological fathers and stepfathers. Three mechanisms potentially determining the strength of father-child and stepfather-child ties were tested, namely, investment, interdependence, and substitution. Background: As most research studied father-child and stepfather-child ties separately, our knowledge about the potential substitution dynamics between the two ties is limited. Method: We used the Dutch Ouders en Kinderen in Nederland (OKiN) survey, which features an

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We examined the importance of adult children’s ties with biological parents and stepparents for well-being in adulthood. We particularly focused on situations in which adult children are not close with the new partner of their biological parent, their stepparent. Following balance theory, it is straining to be in an unbalanced pattern (i.e., close to biological parent, not close to stepparent). Firstly, we studied how many adults are close to their biological parent only (dissonance), to both the biological parent and stepparent (positive consonance), or to neither parent in the stepfamily household (negative consonance). Secondly, we examined if the ties to biological parents and stepparents - as well as, the patterns between the two ties - were associated with the subjective well-being of the adult child. The OKiN data was used, which includes N = 1,477 adults with a stepfather and N = 1,274 adults with a stepmother. OLS regression models suggested that parent-child ties were important for depression and loneliness in adulthood, although associations with stepmother-child ties were insignificant. Moreover, the prevalence of dissonant ties was low, but the consequences for depression and loneliness were considerable. A distant or conflictual stepparent-child tie attenuated the benefits of having a close tie with the biological parent. Consequently, adult children in dissonant patterns are not necessarily better off in terms of well-being than those in negative consonant patterns.

A kinkeeper is the person within the household that is involved in the management of family relationships, a position traditionally fulfilled by women. Due to the increased complexity of family life, which resulted from the rise in divorce and remarriage, the kinkeeper role might nowadays be particularly important but also more ambiguous. First, we examined differences in parental involvement in kinkeeping (buying presents, organizing outings, relaying family news, and discussing problems) along the lines of gender, family structure, and biological relatedness. Second, we explored whether the kinkeeping of parents and their partners is effective in the facilitation of intergenerational closeness with adult children. We used the OKiN survey, which includes information on kinkeeping in N = 746 intact, N = 982 mother-stepfather, and N = 1,010 father-stepmother families. Findings indicated a central facilitative role for mothers and stepmothers. Substantial gaps were found between mothers and fathers, married and divorced parents, and biological and stepparents with respect to the (variety of) kinkeeping in which these parents were involved. Yet, the contrasts of biological relatedness and family structure were also found to be gendered, as these gaps were smaller for mothers than fathers. Finally, an association was found between adult closeness with biological parents and the kinkeeping of the spouse, regardless of the nature of the relationship between the spouse and adult child. This implies that a stepmother can be just as effective as a married biological mother in facilitating the ties between a father and his biological children.

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