The top 12 development journals published a total of 18,329 papers during the period 2000-2020. Out of these, just 51 focused on sanitation and related issues, which are the focus of this review. Results were mixed on the efficiency of sanitation delivery since political factors and administrative characteristics vary across locations. Accountability and leadership, especially at the local level, appear to be important driving forces. There is a need for more case studies that analyze what works, and what does not, in specific locations. Also, further studies will have to investigate how to influence the norms, traditions, and beliefs towards favorably supporting household sanitation decisions. Additionally, governments should enhance their social welfare programs to address socioeconomic inequalities (i.e., income, gender, and rural-urban disparities), which also critically affect individual and household sanitation investments. Efforts at national and international levels are needed to encourage research on the various dimensions of sanitation.
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In 1988 and 1989, the Philippine government implemented free public and subsidized private secondary schooling through two major policies, namely Republic Act (RA) 6655 and RA 6728. This study investigates the long-run impacts of the two policies on schooling attainment and income using a regression discontinuity design (RDD). It draws data from the Annual Poverty Indicators Survey 2008 and 2011. We present two main findings. First, younger cohorts of women and men, who are policy beneficiaries, have significantly higher educational attainment relative to non-beneficiaries. Second, an additional year of schooling significantly increases individual income of women in the informal sector and men in the formal sector. In brief, our findings suggest that the policies are effective in enhancing schooling attainment, but the downstream impacts appear to have accrued substantially to women employed in the informal sector and men employed in the formal sector.
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