Studies on voltage-gated K channels such as Shaker have shown that positive charges in the voltage-sensor (S4) can form salt bridges with negative charges in the surrounding transmembrane segments in a state-dependent manner, and different charge pairings can stabilize the channels in closed or open states. The goal of this study is to identify such charge interactions in the hERG channel. This knowledge can provide constraints on the spatial relationship among transmembrane segments in the channel's voltage-sensing domain, which are necessary for modeling its structure. We first study the effects of reversing S4's positive charges on channel activation. Reversing positive charges at the outer (K525D) and inner (K538D) ends of S4 markedly accelerates hERG activation, whereas reversing the 4 positive charges in between either has no effect or slows activation. We then use the 'mutant cycle analysis' to test whether D456 (outer end of S2) and D411 (inner end of S1) can pair with K525 and K538, respectively. Other positive charges predicted to be able, or unable, to interact with D456 or D411 are also included in the analysis. The results are consistent with predictions based on the distribution of these charged residues, and confirm that there is functional coupling between D456 and K525 and between D411 and K538.

Aims/hypothesis IA-2 and IA-2β are dense core vesicle (DCV) transmembrane proteins and major autoantigens in type 1 diabetes. The present experiments were initiated to test the hypothesis that the knockout of these genes impairs the secretion of insulin by reducing the number of DCV. Methods Insulin secretion, content and DCV number were evaluated in islets from single knockout (IA-2 KO, IA-2β KO) and double knockout (DKO) mice by a variety of techniques including electron and two-photon microscopy, membrane capacitance, Ca2+ currents, DCV half-life, lysosome number and size and autophagy. Results Islets from single and DKO mice all showed a significant decrease in insulin content, insulin secretion and the number and half-life of DCV (P < 0.05 to 0.001). Exocytosis as evaluated by two-photon microscopy, membrane capacitance and Ca2+ currents support these findings. Electron microscopy of islets from KO mice revealed a marked increase (P < 0.05 to 0.001) in the number and size of lysosomes and enzymatic studies showed an increase in cathepsin D activity (P < 0.01). LC3 protein, an indicator of autophagy, also was increased in islets of KO as compared to WT mice (P < 0.05 to 0.01) suggesting that autophagy might be involved in the deletion of DCV. Conclusions/interpretation We conclude that the decrease in insulin content and secretion, resulting from the deletion of IA-2 and/or IA-2β, is due to a decrease in the number of DCV.

Plasma insulin measurements from mice, rats, dogs, and humans indicate that insulin levels are oscillatory, reflecting pulsatile insulin secretion from individual islets. An unanswered question, however, is how the activity of a population of islets is coordinated to yield coherent oscillations in plasma insulin. Here, using mathematical modeling, we investigate the feasibility of a potential islet synchronization mechanism, cholinergic signaling. This hypothesis is based on well-established experimental evidence demonstrating intrapancreatic parasympathetic (cholinergic) ganglia and recent in vitro evidence that a brief application of a muscarinic agonist can transiently synchronize islets. We demonstrate using mathematical modeling that periodic pulses of acetylcholine released from cholinergic neurons is indeed able to coordinate the activity of a population of simulated islets, even if only a fraction of these are innervated. The role of islet-to-islet heterogeneity is also considered. The results suggest that the existence of cholinergic input to the pancreas may serve as a regulator of endogenous insulin pulsatility in vivo.

Aims/hypothesis We have previously reported that glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) is induced by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in mice lacking ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channels (Kir6.2−/− mice [up-to-date symbol for Kir6.2 gene is Kcnj11]), in which glucose alone does not trigger insulin secretion. This study aimed to clarify the mechanism involved in the induction of GSIS by GLP-1. Methods Pancreas perfusion experiments were performed using wild-type (Kir6.2+/+) or Kir6.2−/− mice. Glucose concentrations were either changed abruptly from 2.8 to 16.7 mmol/l or increased stepwise (1.4 mmol/l per step) from 2.8 to 12.5 mmol/l. Electrophysiological experiments were performed using pancreatic beta cells isolated from Kir6.2−/− mice or clonal pancreatic beta cells (MIN6 cells) after pharmacologically inhibiting their KATP channels with glibenclamide. Results The combination of cyclic AMP plus 16.7 mmol/l glucose evoked insulin secretion in Kir6.2−/− pancreases where glucose alone was ineffective as a secretagogue. The secretion was blocked by the application of niflumic acid. In KATP channel-inactivated MIN6 cells, niflumic acid similarly inhibited the membrane depolarisation caused by cAMP plus glucose. Surprisingly, stepwise increases of glucose concentration triggered insulin secretion only in the presence of cAMP or GLP-1 in Kir6.2+/+, as in Kir6.2−/− pancreases. Conclusions/interpretation Niflumic acid-sensitive ion channels participate in the induction of GSIS by cyclic AMP in Kir6.2−/− beta cells. Cyclic AMP thus not only acts as a potentiator of insulin secretion, but appears to be permissive for GSIS via novel, niflumic acid-sensitive ion channels. This mechanism may be physiologically important for triggering insulin secretion when the plasma glucose concentration increases gradually rather than abruptly.