Migratory pastoralism is the traditional occupation of pastoralists (Maldharis) for more than 500 years and agriculture is not practised in entire Banni grasslands. The present study was conducted in Banni grasslands between 2014 and 2017 covering 280 households from 12 villages to investigate the livelihood and income dynamics. Banni buffalo based pastoralism and Prosopis juliflora based charcoal production were the primary occupations for 70 and 20% households respectively. Charcoal production was the predominant secondary occupation for 60% households. Sheep and goat rearing, handicrafts production, services and trade were the primary occupations for 2–3% households each. At least three livelihood options contributed to annual income of households. Contribution of primary occupation to annual income ranged from 38 to 93% whereas secondary occupation(s) contributed 0.3 to 42%. The analysis revealed that families owning >40 buffaloes were the richest group with net annual income of ` 12,07,429, followed by the households owning 21–40 animals with an average income of ` 6,94,008 and those engaged in trade with net income of ` 6,68,254. Households engaged in charcoal production and services earned net annual income of ` 65,059/ and ` 66,288/ respectively and were the poorest groups as majority of them did not own buffaloes and cattle. Those engaged in service sector were either in unorganized sector or were unskilled and semi-skilled labourers. Factors such as ownership of livestock (Banni buffalo and Kankrej cattle) and herd size; market access to milk collection centre and its distance from the village; and income from sale of milk and milk products, livestock (buffalo, cattle and camel), charcoal, embroidery, tourism and trade contributed significantly to the net annual income of households. Income earned from labour and sale of minor forest produce (honey and gum) were low and nonsignificant. Scientific management of rapidly expanding P. juliflora is crucial for conservation of Banni ecology and improving livelihoods. Establishment of milk collection centres in interior villages would contribute significantly in increasing incomes (upto ` 35,920/buffalo/lactation) of pastoralists.

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The present study was conducted in Banni grasslands to estimate the sustainability of different livelihood options practiced by pastoralist households. The sustainability of livelihood options was measured using a scale consisting of ecological, economic and socio-cultural parameters with 6 indicators each. The primary data were collected from 280 households in 12 villages in Banni grasslands between 2014 and 2019. It was found that there were 11 distinct livelihood options practiced in Banni grasslands: Banni buffalo based pastoralism, goat and sheep rearing, Prosopis juliflora based charcoal production, honey collection, gum extraction, embroidery, leather work, labour, services, tourism and trade. The sustainability of buffalo rearing was found to be highest on ecological, economic and socio-cultural indicators. Migratory pastoralism has evolved over five centuries adapting to climatic and man-made changes, has deep socio-cultural heritage and employed 70% households at present while generating highest revenues to individual households and the Banni economy. The economic sustainability of charcoal production was higher than the goat and sheep rearing whereas the ecological and socio-cultural sustainability of the latter was higher. Charcoal production employed 80% households (as primary and secondary enterprise) whereas goat and sheep rearing employed merely 3% households indicating the economic significance of the former enterprise. It was evident that economic sustainability was the immediate goal of individual pastoralist households to attain income, food and nutritional security. Goat and sheep rearing could provide an alternative to charcoal production while being more sustainable. Charcoal production was an adaptation strategy for livelihood security. Control of P. juliflora will have positive implications on the ecology of Banni grasslands and livelihoods of pastoralists. The recognition of community grazing rights of Maldharis over Banni grasslands would further augment this shift. Similarly, handicrafts (embroidery and leather craft) and trade offer sustainable alternatives to charcoal production in the context of expanding tourism and market access.

Banni grasslands in Gujarat are home to migratory pastoralists (Maldharis) for more than 500 years. Maldharis are landless and dependent on livestock for their livelihood. The study was conducted to measure the long-term growth and instability of different livestock species in Banni grasslands from 1977 to 2012. Pastoralists (280) were personally interviewed during 2015 to 2017 to prioritize the factors affecting trends in livestock population using Garrett ranking technique. The Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) in population was highest for Banni buffaloes (5.89%) followed by Kankrej cattle (1.78%) and it was negative for goat (-0.29%) and sheep (–0.28%) population. Cuddy Della Valle Instability Index was very high for goat (89%) and sheep population (78%) whereas it was low for buffaloes (31%) and cattle (23%). The severity and duration of drought significantly affected the decline in population of goat and sheep. However, the shift in population of buffaloes and cattle was affected by complex of technological and policy factors. Decline in demand of Kankrej bullocks for agriculture use, low milk productivity of cows, and detrimental impact of regular feeding on Prosopis juliflora pods (weakening and dislocation of jaws and gradual death of cows) led to significant increase in population of Banni buffaloes when compared to Kankrej cattle. The population growth rate of Banni buffaloes (457%) was six times higher than the Kankrej cows (70%) from 1977 to 2012. This trend is most likely to continue in the following years as the migratory pastoralism is being gradually replaced by semi-migratory and sedentary pastoralism and establishment of organized dairy industry. Establishment of dairy units/Milk Collection Centres and improved road connectivity of villages in Banni have further facilitated in promotion of Banni buffalo based pastoralism as the primary source of livelihood. Composition of different livestock species in 2012 (Buffaloes: 72%, Cattle: 16%, Goat: 7% and Sheep: 6%) indicated the dominance of Banni buffalo both in terms of number and contribution to livelihood of pastoralists and overall economy of Banni grasslands.