Variation in cahn isotope discrimination (Δ) and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (Rubisco) content per unit leaf area was examined in leaves from upper and lower positions in the canopy of six groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) genotypes, grown under irrigated and mild water-deficit conditions in the field. The leaf mass per unit leaf area (ρL) and soluble proteins in leaves were determined at 80, 96, 111 and 127 days after sowing (DAS), while Δ and Rubisco were determined at 80 DAS only. The mean Δ ranged from 18.2 to 20.20 among genotypes, representing a significant (P < 0.01) variation. Rubisco content per unit leaf area also varied significantly (P < 0.01) with genotype and leaf position. There was a trend to an increase in Rubisco content under water deficit, but the effects were not significant. Leaves at the top of the canopy had a higher Rubisco content and lower Δ, than leaves at the bottom of the canopy. Genotype × leaf position interaction was significant for Δ and Rubisco, indicating the importance of leaf position in selecting for water-use efficiency (W), using leaf traits in groundnut. Rubisco content and Δ were negatively related (r2 = 0.65, P < 0.01). There was a significantly positive correlation between Rubisco content and ρL in the upper leaves (r2 = 0.60, P < 0.01 ), but not in the lower leaves in the canopy. However, the overall relationship between Rubisco and ρL (r2 = 0.40) was not as strong as it was between Rubisco and Δ. The results suggest that, in groundnut, the basis of genotypic variation in was mostly (> 60%) attributable to Rubisco content per unit leaf area. In view of the leaf positional effects on Δ and Rubisco, the upper leaves in the canopy should be used for selecting genotypes for W based on leaf traits like ρL or Δ.
Twenty-nine bunch groundnut genotypes were grown in the Kharif season 1980 and the summer season 1981 at Bangalore. Growth and yield analysis showed that the total dry-matter accumulation was low up to 30 days after sowing and increased linearly up to the 86th day in the Kharif and up to harvest in the summer season. There were significant differences between genotypes in leaf area indices (LAI), the leaf area duration (LAD) and LAD between pod initiation and harvest (LAD P ) in both the seasons. The mean LAI of genotypes did not vary much between the Kharif and the summer seasons up to the 66th day. However, during the later stages of growth the LAD was higher in the summer. The higher biological yield and productivity in the summer was attributed to the high LAD and LAD P during the later stages of crop growth. LAD and total dry-matter accumulation at harvest were significantly correlated both in the Kharif (r = 0-75) and the summer (r = 0-81).The mean total number of flowers over all 29 genotypes did not vary, but total number of pegs formed per plant differed significantly between genotypes in both the Kharif and summer seasons. The percentage of flowers which produced pegs was 72-2 in summer as against 51-2 in Kharif.The primary branches contributed 86'7 and 90-1 % to the total number of pods per plant in the Kharif and summer seasons respectively. The contribution of the first four nodes of primary branches was 85 % in both seasons. The number of fruiting points (nodes having mature pods) per plant, found to be the most important yield-determining component, showed significant variation amongst the genotypes in both the Kharif and summer seasons. In summer, length of mature-pod-bearing zone (MPBZ), number of nodes in MPBZ and number of kernels per plant were higher than in the Kharif season.It is suggested that selection and breeding should concentrate on improving LAD and LAD P , total dry matter per plant, more primary branches per plant, more pods in the distal nodes of primary branches and more fruiting points (nodes in MPBZ) per plant. INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in North of Bengaluru with an aim to analyze effect of urbanization on production diversity, farm income and factors influencing the same across the rural-urban interface. The required data was collected randomly from 80 farmers each under rural, transition and urban gradients. Multiple linear regression was used to determine the drivers of farm income. Herfindahl index was employed to capture the extent of production diversification. Results revealed that the rural farmers diversified from food crops to vegetable and flower crops over the years. Whereas, farmers of transition and urban gradients chose to grow high value horticulture crops instead of food crops. During 2019, the extent of diversification was more in transition (0.21) and rural (0.25) gradients compared to urban (0.29) gradient. In rural gradients, the major share of farm income was from cereals (31.79 %) followed by vegetables (28.65 %) and perennials (17.88 %) in 2014 but the major share was replaced by vegetables (28.69 %) and flower crops (19.98) in 2019. In transition and urban gradients, the major source of farm income was from vegetables in 2014 which was later substituted by fruit crops in 2019. Over the period of five years, the percentage increase in average farm income of households was highest in urban gradient (143.07 %) followed by rural (140.15 %) and transition (110.50 %) gradients. Land holding size, education, borrowed capital and investment in farming emerged as the principal determinants of farm income. As a whole, the study concludes that, urbanization led investment on high value crops through crop diversification which played a significant role in augmenting the farm income.
The study was undertaken in North of Bengaluru to analyse the investment pattern, crop diversification and farm household’s income across rural-urban interface. The required data was collected from randomly selected 80 farmers each under rural, transition and urban gradients. Tobit regression was used to determine the drivers of investment and Herfindahl index was used to capture the extent of crop diversification across rural urban interface. The per farm investment was relatively higher on water resource and irrigation structure across all the gradients. Around 56, 51 and 45 percent of farmers have invested on water resource and irrigation structures in transition, urban and rural gradient, respectively followed by animal husbandry (40% in rural gradient) and plantation and horticulture (25% in transition and urban gradients). There has been an investment led crop diversification from food crops to vegetables, flower and fruit crops in rural gradient between 2014 and 2019. Whereas, in transition and urban gradients, diversification was from food and vegetable crops to high value fruit crops during the same period. During 2019, the extent of diversification was more in transition (0.21) and rural (0.25) gradients compared to urban (0.29) gradient. Age of head of family, farm income and borrowed capital were the chief drivers which significantly affected the investment in agriculture. The study concludes that, investment led high value crops cultivation and crop diversification played significant role in augmenting the farm income leading to improvement in farmer’s welfare assuring food and livelihood security.
The study was undertaken in North of Bengaluru to assess the quantum of credit borrowed, sources of credit and its utilization pattern by farm households across rural urban interface. The required primary data was collected from randomly selected 50 farmers each under rural, peri-urban and urban transacts. The results revealed that the farmers availed more credit from formal sources compared to informal sources across all transacts. Commercial banks occupied the prominent position in all the three transacts with a share of 52.25, 53.15 and 42.17 per cent in rural, peri-urban and urban areas, respectively followed by cooperatives among the formal sources. In case of informal sources, the amount borrowed was high in rural area (40.06 %) followed by peri-urban (24.13 %) and urban area (15.89 %). Furthermore, the amount borrowed among informal sources was more from the money lenders and commission agents. When crop loans are concerned, the peri urban farmers are more productive in proper utilization of the loans followed by urban and rural farmers. Credit borrowed in rural areas was primarily utilized on livestock (32 %), education (32 %) and bore well digging (22 %). Whereas, majority of farmers in peri-urban area and urban areas utilized credit for high value horticulture crops and livestock rearing. In case of high value crops, for digging of bore well and livestock rearing, the utilization percentage was cent per cent or even more in all the areas. It was because these crops will help in getting assured returns which is sufficient enough to meet their household expenditure when compared with the normal crop enterprises.
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