The effect of two different thermal units (flame and hot steam) and three types of mulch on the percentage of weeds killed was studied in a series of experiments over 2 years. The factors studied were driving speed (2, 3, 4 km/h), flame treatment (first, second, third), growth stage (<6, 68, >8 true leaves), hot steam treatment (single, double), mulch type (none, coarse bark, sawdust, hay), and chemical application. The results suggest that a driving speed of 2 km/h kills the highest percentage of weeds, and for weed species with unprotected growth points and thin leaves, the first flame application can completely kill weeds with <6 leaves. However, a second or third flame application is required for those with 6 or more leaves. The hot steam method is effective when it is applied twice, with the second application 1 week after the first. However, there is room for improving its technology to make it cost effective for large-scale applications. Mulches after chemical herbicide application are effective for controlling weeds. However, mulching cannot be recommended with flaming because of fire hazard. The effectiveness of herbicide depends on the weed species and on whether the same herbicide was used in the preceding years. Compared to using herbicide with mulching, herbicide alone was less effective in controlling weeds and more costly in terms of cost per hectare and the environment. Key words: thermal weed control, flame, hot steam, mulching, herbicides, apple orchard, logit models.
Thermal weeding in Eastern Canadian agticulture is relatively new and being considered as a viable tool in organic food production. Hot water (HW), infrared (IR) and open flame (OF) thermal units were compared in terms of energy efficiency and effectiveness (percentage of weeds killed). The units were operated at ground speeds of 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 km h-1 , and were tested on Amarantlws retroftexus L. (redroot pigweed), Chenopodium album L. (common lambsquru1ers), Persicaria maculata L. (ladysthumb), and Sinapis alba L. (white mustard) at growth stages of< 6, 6-8 and > 8 leaves. HW was also operated at I km h-1 • The energy consumption of lR was determined to be more than four times that of HW and OF, which consumed similar amounts per unit area. All units showed peak energy efficiency at 2.5 km h-1 speed; with the OF attaining the highest energy efficiency followed by IR, and then by HW, which was the least energy efficient. HW was also the least effective in controlling weeds, killing less than 48% of all four species. IR at speeds of 1.5 and 2.5 km h-1 killed I 00% of all weed species that were at growth stages of< 6 leaves. OF at 1.5 and 2.5 km h-1 killed I 00% of young redroot pigweed, common Iambsquarters, and ladysthumb, but not white mustard. OF at 2.5 km h-1 speed had the highest energy efficiency and effectiveness for most weed species that were at their early growth stage. Although IR at 3.5 km h-1 used higher energy input and had lower energy efficiency, it showed a potential for controlling a good number of the weed species as effectively or more effectively than OF at 1.5 km h-1 •
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