Over the years, several chemical reactions have been developed that enable the covalent conjugation of synthetic molecules to natural proteins. The resulting bioconjugates have become important tools in the study of natural proteins. Furthermore, they form a new class of protein-based pharmaceuticals and biomaterials. However, classical bioconjugation reactions to natural amino acids suffer from poor site-specificity. To overcome this problem, a variety of uniquely reactive non-natural amino acids have recently been designed. These can be incorporated into proteins by specifically engineered bacterial strains. Such reactive non-natural amino acids create new possibilities for bio-orthogonal conjugation to proteins. This review first gives an overview of the various methods for site-specific introduction of non-natural amino acids into proteins. Both semisynthetic and entirely recombinant methods are addressed. Then, a detailed description is given of the reactive non-natural amino acids that have already been recombinantly introduced into proteins. The bio-orthogonal reactions that can be used for conjugation to these reactive non-natural amino acids are also discussed. These include the alkyne/azide 'click' reaction, carbonyl condensations, Michael-type additions, and Mizoroki-Heck substitutions.

The immunogenicity of biopharmaceuticals used in clinical practice remains an unsolved challenge in drug development. Non-human primates (NHPs) are often the only relevant animal model for the development of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), but the immune response of NHPs to therapeutic mAbs is not considered to be predictive of the response in humans because of species differences. In this study, we accessed the drug registration files of all mAbs registered in the European Union to establish the relative immunogenicity of mAbs in NHPs and humans. The incidence of formation of antidrug-antibodies in NHPs and patients was comparable in only 59% of the cases. In addition, the type of antidrug-antibody response was different in NHP and humans in 59% of the cases. Humanization did not necessarily reduce immunogenicity in humans. Immunogenicity interfered with the safety assessment during non-clinical drug development when clearing or neutralizing antibodies were formed. While important to interpret the study results, immunogenicity reduced the quality of NHP data in safety assessment. These findings confirm that the ability to compare relative immunogenicity of mAbs in NHPs and humans is low. Furthermore, immunogenicity limits the value of informative NHP studies.

Abstract. Release of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil of a peatland (fen) in The Netherlands was measured by means of an in situ incubation technique. Three sampling stations were chosen along a gradient in the plant productivity and water chemistry of the fen. The station with the highest biomass production was located near the ditch that supplied the fen with water in amounts matching water losses through evaporation and downward percolation to the groundwater. Water chemistry at this station strongly resembled that of the ditch water. The two stations remote from the ditch had much lower plant biomass, and significantly lower pH, conductivity, and calcium and bicarbonate concentrations. The vegetation at these two stations was characterized by a thick Sphagnum carpet.The release of inorganic N and P was much faster at the two stations remote from the ditch than at that located near the ditch. The differences in mineralization rate are probably due to the differences in water chemistry; phosphates are more soluble at low than at high pH. The fast N mineralization at stations with a thick Sphagnum carpet may be related to the chemical composition of Sphagnum litter.The difference in productivity is not explained by the N and P mineralization rates. Direct supply of N and P from the ditch are probably the main cause of the high productivity at the station bordering the ditch.

The value of animal studies to assess drug safety is unclear because many such studies are biased and have methodological shortcomings. We studied whether post-marketing serious adverse reactions to small molecule drugs could have been detected on the basis of animal study data included in drug registration files. Of 93 serious adverse reactions related to 43 small molecule drugs, only 19% were identified in animal studies as a true positive outcome, which suggests that data from animal studies are of limited value to pharmacovigilance activities. Our study shows that drug registration files can be used to study the predictive value of animal studies and that the value of animal studies in all stages of the drug development should be investigated in a collaborative endeavour between regulatory authorities, industry, and academia.

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For radical innovation to become successful the substitution of established practices are essential. Nevertheless, in the innovation literature novelty is often at the center and only little attention is paid to the influence of established technologies and underlying routines. This paper aims to contribute to this gap by increasing the understanding about the effect of persistence of established practices on the innovation process. We do this by using a framework that combines the Technological Innovation System approach with an analysis of the institutional logics reinforcing the established practice. The studied case concerns the innovation process to animal-free medicine development. Despite the fact that the substitution of animal tests is called for since the 1980s and animalfree methods are available, animal tests are still being used in medicine development. This study shows that adding institutional logics to the innovation systems analysis creates a much better understanding of the speed and direction of radical innovation.

The European Union (EU) was the first region to establish a regulatory framework for biosimilars, in which animal studies are required to confirm similarity to a reference product. However, animal studies described in European public assessment reports (EPARs) or marketing authorization applications (MAAs) did not identify clinically or toxicologically relevant differences despite differences in quality, suggesting that animal studies lack the sensitivity to confirm biosimilarity. Scientific advice provided learning opportunities to evolve existing guidance. Altogether, the data support a step-wise approach to develop biosimilars that focuses on quality and clinical efficacy of biosimilar. This approach might be more effective and does not necessarily require animal studies, which is also reflected in new EU draft guidance.

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