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The effect of soil application of biocontrol agents (Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum) in combination with chitin on induction of phenolics and defense enzymes in coconut roots infected with Ganoderma lucidum, the causal agent of Ganoderma disease, was investigated. Soil application of these biocontrol formulations in combination with chitin induced a significant increase in the activities of peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO), phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), chitinase and beta-1,3-glucanase in the G. lucidum infected palms. Activities of both PAL and PO reached maximum levels within 3 d while the activity of PPO reached the maximum level 6 d after application of a mixture of P. fluorescens, T. viride and chitin. Isozyme analysis revealed that unique PO3 and PPO2 isozymes were induced in coconut palms treated with P. fluorescens + T. viride + chitin. Accumulation of phenolics was recorded 3 d after treatment and reached maximum levels 9 d after treatment application. Activity of chitinase was significantly increased from the third day after treatment imposition and continued to increase up to 9 to 12 d in all treatments. Chitinase isozyme analysis revealed that a unique Chit3 isoform was induced in coconut roots treated with P. fluorescens + T. viride + chitin. The beta-1,3-glucanase activity was maximum 9 d after treatment application. The mechanisms by which P. fluorescens + T. viride + chitin reduced the incidence of Ganoderma disease in coconut may be related to its ability to induce defense mechanisms in coconut palms.

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are wireless infrastructure-less network consisting collection of autonomous nodes that communicate with each other in decentralized manner. Security remains major challenge due to its some unique characteristics like open medium, mobility and hence topology changes. Therefore, routing protocol for MANETs is much vulnerable to attacks. Black Hole is a type of attack, where malicious node falsely advertises itself having the shortest or optimal path to the destination node. This attack is more dangerous while a group of nodes are cooperating with each other. The objective of this paper is to design cluster based routing protocol and prevent it from the black hole attack. The simulation results show improvement in packet delivery ratio and control overhead.

Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxin contamination of peanut is one of the most important constraints to peanut production worldwide. In order to develop an eco-friendly method of prevention of A. flavus infection and aflatoxin contamination in peanut, aqueous extracts obtained from leaves of 30 medicinal plants belonging to different families were evaluated for their ability to inhibit the growth of A. flavus in vitro. Among them the leaf extract of zimmu (Allium sativum L. · Allium cepa L.) was the only one that showed antifungal activity against A. flavus and recorded 73% inhibition of A. flavus growth. The antifungal activity of the zimmu extract was significantly decreased upon dialysis with a dialysis membrane having molecular cut off 12 kDa or autoclaving at 121°C for 20 min or boiling at 100°C for 10 min and recorded inhibition of 52, 16 and 21%, respectively. When A. flavus was grown in medium containing zimmu extract the production of aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ) was completely inhibited even at a concentration of 0.5%. When AFB 1 was incubated with zimmu extract a complete degradation of AFB 1 was observed 5 days after incubation. When the roots of zimmu were incubated in water containing 70 ng of AFB 1 /ml, a reduction (by 58.5%) in AFB 1 concentration was observed 5 days after incubation. A significant reduction in the population of A. flavus in the soil, kernel infection by A. flavus and aflatoxin contamination in kernels was observed when peanut was intercropped with zimmu. The population of the fungal antagonist, Trichoderma viride in the zimmu-intercropped field increased approximately twofold.

Low-rank coals csonstitute a major energy source for the future as reserves of such high-moisture coals around the world are vast. Currently they are considered undesirable since high moisture content entails high transportation costs, potential safety hazards in transportation and storage, and the low thermal efficiency obtained in combustion of such coals. Furthermore, low-moisture-content coal is needed for the various coal pyrolysis, gasification developed. Hence, various upgrading processes have been developed to reduce the moisture content. Moisture readsorption and spontaneous combustion are important issues in coal upgrading processes. This article discusses results of laboratory experiments conducted to study the options for minimization of readsorption of moisture after drying of selected coal samples. Results suggest that there is little benefit in drying low-rank coal at high temperatures. It was found that the higher the amount of bitumen used for coating, the lower is the readsorption of moisture by dried coal. Also, mixing hightemperature-dried coal with wet coal in appropriate proportion can yield reduced moisture content as the sensible heat in the hot coal is utilized for evaporation. INTRODUCTIONLow-grade coals, which are mainly lignite and low-grade sub-bituminous, constitute over 85% of the global coal reserves. Their high moisture content, greater tendency to combust spontaneously, high degree of weathering, and the dusting characteristics restrict wide-range use of lowrank coals. The price of coal sold to utilities depends upon the heating value of the coal. Reduced moisture content of coal increases the efficiency of power plants, decreases transportation costs, decreases ash disposal requirements, and decreases power plant emissions. Thus, removal of moisture from low-rank coals is an important operation.Various dewatering and upgrading processes have been developed in a number of industries since the 1920s [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

Background: Small-scale agriculture, government entitlements, and livelihood opportunities offered by rapid economic growth shape the food security and wellbeing of people in rural India. This paper analyses this ongoing process of agrarian development from the perspective of three major approaches: the food availability approach, the entitlement and livelihood approach, and food sovereignty. We draw on quantitative and qualitative data collected from 68 households in rural Tamil Nadu on landholding and management, farm diversity, agricultural production, food availability, off-farm employment, rural out-migration, objective and subjective wellbeing, and socioeconomic and demographic profile of respondents.Results: Rural households were classified in four categories, based on their engagement in agriculture and off-farm employment, to understand the interplay between food sufficiency and wellbeing. The households solely based on small-scale agriculture were found to have higher food sufficiency, landholding, and crop diversity, but lower monthly income and wellbeing. The households that were engaged in off-farm employment in addition to agriculture were found to have lower food sufficiency, landholding, and crop diversity, yet they exhibited better wellbeing and higher income. The landless households, which were primarily engaged in off-farm labour, work in distant markets had higher income than households solely engaged in farming. However, they had the lowest wellbeing index among all household types. The findings indicated that the impacts of women's participation in local or distant employment schemes on household food security and wellbeing were complex and shaped by the household's engagement in agriculture and their aspirations for a better quality of life. Conclusions:None of the three food security approaches provides a fully satisfactory basis for interventions aimed at enhancing the capacity of small and marginal farmers to achieve food security and meet their aspirations for wellbeing in the research area, although the entitlements and livelihoods approach has had a significant impact on local possibilities for livelihoods diversification. The study demonstrates that the interaction between food security and the subjective wellbeing of farmers is complex and shaped by the productivity of small-scale agriculture and livelihood aspirations of farm households.

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