BackgroundBarriers to HIV treatment among injection drug users (IDU) are a major public health concern. However, there remain few long-term studies investigating key demographic and behavioral factors - and gender differences in particular - that may pose barriers to antiretroviral therapy (ART), especially in settings with universal healthcare. We evaluated access and adherence to ART in a long-term cohort of HIV-positive IDU in a setting where medical care and antiretroviral therapy are provided free of charge through a universal healthcare system.MethodsWe evaluated baseline antiretroviral use and subsequent adherence to ART among a Canadian cohort of HIV-positive IDU. We used generalized estimating equation logistic regression to evaluate factors associated with 95% adherence to antiretroviral therapy estimated based on prescription refill compliance.ResultsBetween May 1996 and April 2008, 545 IDU participants were followed for a median of 23.8 months (Inter-quartile range: 8.5 - 91.6), among whom 341 (63%) were male and 204 (37%) were female. Within the six-month period prior to the baseline interview, 133 (39%) men and 62 (30%) women were on ART (p = 0.042). After adjusting for clinical characteristics as well as drug use patterns measured longitudinally throughout follow-up, female gender was independently associated with a lower likelihood of being 95% adherent to ART (Odds Ratio [OR] = 0.70; 95% Confidence Interval: 0.53-0.93).ConclusionsDespite universal access to free HIV treatment and medical care, female IDU were less likely to access and adhere to antiretroviral therapy, a finding that was independent of drug use and clinical characteristics. These data suggest that interventions to improve access to HIV treatment among IDU must be tailored to address unique barriers to antiretroviral therapy faced by female IDU.
Introduction Evidence is needed to improve HIV treatment outcomes for individuals who use injection drugs (IDU). Although studies have suggested higher rates of plasma viral load (PVL) rebound among IDU on antiretroviral therapy (ART), risk factors for rebound have not been thoroughly investigated. Methods We used data from a long-running community-recruited prospective cohort of IDU in Vancouver, Canada, linked to comprehensive ART and clinical monitoring records. Using proportional hazards methods, we modeled the time to confirmed PVL rebound above 1000 copies/mL among IDU on ART with sustained viral suppression, defined as two consecutive undetectable PVL measures. Results Between 1996 and 2009, 277 individuals had sustained viral suppression. Over a median follow-up of 32 months, 125 participants (45.1%) experienced at least one episode of virologic failure for an incidence of 12.6 (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 10.5 – 15.0) per 100 person years. In a multivariate model, PVL rebound was independently associated with sex trade involvement (Adjusted Hazard Ratio [AHR] = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.08 – 1.82) and recent incarceration (AHR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.33 – 2.52). Methadone maintenance therapy (AHR = 0.79, 95% CI: 0.66 – 0.94) was protective. No measure of illicit drug use was predictive. Conclusions In this setting of free ART, several social and environmental factors predicted higher risks of viral rebound among IDU, including sex trade involvement and incarceration. These findings should help inform efforts to identify individuals at risk of viral rebound as well as targeted interventions to treat and retain individuals in effective ART.
Objective Many people who use illicit drugs (PWUD) face challenges to their financial stability. Resulting activities that PWUD undertake to generate income may increase their vulnerability to violence. We therefore examined the relationship between income generation and exposure to violence across a wide range of income generating activities among HIV-positive and HIV-negative PWUD living in Vancouver, Canada. Methods Data were derived from cohorts of HIV-seropositive and HIV-seronegative PWUD (n=1876) between December 2005 and November 2012. We estimated the relationship between different types of income generation and suffering any kind of violence using bivariate and multivariate generalized estimating equations (GEE), as well as the characteristics of violent interactions. Results Exposure to violence was reported among 977 (52%) study participants over the study period. In multivariate models controlling for socio-demographic characteristics, mental health status, and drug use patterns, violence was independently and positively associated with participation in street-based income generation activities (i.e., recycling, squeegeeing, and panhandling; adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.39, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.23–1.57), sex work (AOR=1.23, 95%CI=1.00–1.50), drug dealing (AOR=1.63, 95%CI=1.44–1.84), and theft and other acquisitive criminal activity (AOR=1.51, 95%CI=1.27–1.80). Engagement in regular, self or temporary employment was not associated with being exposed to violence. Strangers were the most common perpetrators of violence (46.7%) and beatings the most common type of exposure (70.8%). Conclusions These results suggest that economic activities expose individuals to contexts associated with social and structural vulnerability to violence. The creation of safe economic opportunities that minimize vulnerability to violence among PWUD is therefore urgently required.
Introduction and Aims Cannabis use is common among people who are living with HIV/AIDS. While there is growing pre-clinical evidence of the immunomodulatory and anti-viral effects of cannabinoids, their possible effects on HIV disease parameters in humans is largely unknown. Thus, we sought to investigate the possible effects of cannabis use on plasma HIV-1 RNA viral loads among recently-seroconverted illicit drug users. Design and Methods We used data from two linked longitudinal observational cohorts of people who use injection drugs. Using multivariable linear mixed-effects modeling, we analysed the relationship between pVL and high-intensity cannabis use among participants who seroconverted following recruitment. Results Between May, 1996 and March, 2012, 88 individuals seroconverted after recruitment and were included in these analyses. Median pVL in the first 365 days among all seroconverters was 4.66 log10 c/mL. In a multivariable model, at least daily cannabis use was associated with 0.51 log10 c/mL lower pVL (β = −0.51, Standard Error = 0.170, p-value = 0.003). Discussion Consistent with the findings from recent in vitro and in vivo studies, including one conducted among lentiviral-infected primates, we observed a strong association between cannabis use and lower pVL following seroconversion among illicit drug-using participants. Conclusion Our findings support the further investigation of the immunomodulatory or anti-viral effects of cannabinoids among individuals living with HIV/AIDS.
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