As with all analytical approaches, grounded theory has drawbacks and limitations. It is important to have an understanding of these in order to assess the applicability of this approach to healthcare research. In this review we outline the principles of grounded theory, and focus on thematic analysis as the analytical approach used most frequently in grounded theory studies, with the aim of providing clinicians with the skills to critically review studies using this methodology. KeywordS 202participants, that is, hypotheses are developed from the data, rather than data collection being a process of testing a pre-existing hypothesis.11 Grounded theory starts with an inductive approach to generating hypotheses from the data; pre-existing knowledge about the topic is deliberately withheld until initial data collection and analysis are complete, in order to prevent it from influencing the research findings. 12 The researcher then goes through a series of systematic cycles of inductive elaboration, deduction and verification 13 in order to build on the initial analysis to develop an integrated 'theory' of action within a specific context. Data analysis in grounded theory is an iterative process where data collection and analysis occur concurrently: insights emerging from early data shape further data collection, which in turn adds to existing understanding, and so on until 'saturation' occurs; that is, no new insights emerge from further data collection.14 The process is therefore not purely inductive as it contains elements of what Peirce called 'abduction'. 15 This is a form of hypothetical inference where new or surprising events within the data prompt the researcher to create new potential hypotheses: 'The surprising fact, C, is observed. But if A were true, C would be a matter of course. Hence there is a reason to suspect that A is true'. 15 Hypotheses generated in this way might lead to further data collection with additional subjects or also re-interviews with earlier subjects to explore newly emerging themes from subsequent data.At the heart of most grounded theory approaches is the identification and progressive refinement of important themes from the data. 16 This process is based on the constant comparative method in which data are continuously categorised and compared across interviews, allowing the emergence of more abstract or theoretical categories that describe the latent patterns within the perspectives of participants. As this process develops, a degree of 'theoretical sensitivity' is required, 17 in that the developing categories increasingly draw on the experiences of the researcher and the existing literature in the area. The process of thematic analysis in relation to interview data is described below. themAtIc AnAlySIS -the proceSSThe process of conducting unstructured, semi-structured or structured interviews requires skill, and is described in detail elsewhere. 8,18 Interviews usually need to be part or fully transcribed to allow thematic analysis: this is time-consuming and can intro...

Deep and insightful interactions with the data are a prerequisite for qualitative data interpretation, in particular, in the generation of grounded theory. The researcher must also employ imaginative insight as they attempt to make sense of the data and generate understanding and theory. Design research is also dependent upon the researchers' creative interpretation of the data. To support the research process, designers surround themselves with data, both as a source of empirical information and inspiration to trigger imaginative insights. Constant interaction with the data is integral to design research methodology. This article explores a design researchers approach to qualitative data analysis, in particular, the use of traditional tools such as colored pens, paper, and sticky notes with the CAQDAS software, NVivo for analysis, and the associated implications for rigor. A design researchers' approach which is grounded in a practice which maximizes researcher data interaction in a variety of learning modalities ensures the analysis process is rigorous and productive. Reflection on the authors' research analysis process, combined with consultation with the literature, would suggest digital analysis software packages such as NVivo do not fully scaffold the analysis process. They do, however, provide excellent data management and retrieval facilities that support analysis and write-up. This research finds that coding using traditional tools such as colored pens, paper, and sticky notes supporting data analysis combined with digital software packages such as NVivo supporting data management offer a valid and tested analysis method for grounded theory generation. Insights developed from exploring a design researchers approach may benefit researchers from other disciplines engaged in qualitative analysis.

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a b s t r a c tIn recent years, several papers have been published that investigate the potential use of ionic liquids (ILs) as additives in lubricants. However, corrosive attack of ILs on lubricated metal surfaces and low miscibility of ILs in the non-polar oils are major obstacles to maintaining an optimum lubrication performance level. High miscibility and no corrosive behaviour of Trihexyltetradecyl phosphonium bis(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinate and Trihexyltetradecyl phosphonium bis(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate, as lubricating oil additives have recently been described in literature. This article presents work on using these phosphonium based ILs as an additive in the fully formulated diesel engine lubricants. This approach could allow the used lubricants to recover their tribological performance for further use at the end of service life. This extension of service life has the potential to generate significant economic and environmental benefits. Also it will add to the much needed knowledge about the effect of interaction between ILs and existing additives in engine-aged lubricants on the tribological performance of ringliner tribo-system of diesel engines. Results revealed an improvement in friction and antiwear performance of used lubricant by addition of both ILs. However an increase in wear was noted for new (fresh) and in-service lubricant samples. An interesting interference between existing lubricant additives and added ILs in a boundary film formation process has been observed.

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