Farm animal welfare is a major concern for society and food production. To more accurately evaluate animal farming in general and to avoid exposing farm animals to poor welfare situations, it is necessary to understand not only their behavioral but also their cognitive needs and capacities. Thus, general knowledge of how farm animals perceive and interact with their environment is of major importance for a range of stakeholders, from citizens to politicians to cognitive ethologists to philosophers. This review aims to outline the current state of farm animal cognition research and focuses on ungulate livestock species, such as cattle, horses, pigs and small ruminants, and reflects upon a defined set of cognitive capacities (physical cognition: categorization, numerical ability, object permanence, reasoning, tool use; social cognition: individual discrimination and recognition, communication with humans, social learning, attribution of attention, prosociality, fairness). We identify a lack of information on certain aspects of physico-cognitive capacities in most farm animal species, such as numerosity discrimination and object permanence. This leads to further questions on how livestock comprehend their physical environment and understand causal relationships. Increasing our knowledge in this area will facilitate efforts to adjust husbandry systems and enrichment items to meet the needs and preferences of farm animals. Research in the socio-cognitive domain indicates that ungulate livestock possess sophisticated mental capacities, such as the discrimination between, and recognition of, conspecifics as well as human handlers using multiple modalities. Livestock also react to very subtle behavioral cues of conspecifics and humans. These socio-cognitive capacities can impact human-animal interactions during management practices and introduce ethical considerations on how to treat livestock in general. We emphasize the importance of gaining a better understanding of how livestock species interact with their physical and social environments, as this information can improve housing and management conditions and can be used to evaluate the use and treatment of animals during production.

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Stroking by humans is beneficial to the human-animal relationship and improves welfare in many species that express intraspecific allogrooming, but very few studies have looked at species like sheep that do not express such contact except around parturition. This study investigated the way lambs perceive regular human tactile contact using behavioral and physiological responses. Twenty-four lambs were reared and bucket-fed in groups of four. All were stroked daily by their familiar caregiver. At 8 weeks of age, the lambs were individually tested in their home pen but in a 1×1m open-barred pen after a 15h period of habituation to physical separation from peers while remaining in visual and auditory contact. Half of the lambs received stroking by their caregiver for 8min and half were exposed to their caregiver’s immobile presence. Heart rate and heart rate variability were recorded and analyzed by 2-min slots over the same interval based on three measures: mean heart rate value (HR), root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) and standard deviation of all intervals measured between consecutive sinus beats (SDNN). Behavioral responses (ear postures of the lamb and time spent in contact with the familiar caregiver, on the knees of the familiar caregiver, and moving) were recorded throughout the test. Lamb HR decreased continuously while in the presence of their caregiver. Lambs being stroked showed slower HR and higher RMSSD which reflected positive emotional states compared to lambs left unstroked. All behavioral variables were highly correlated with the main component axis of the PCA analyses: the more the animals stayed in contact with their caregiver, the less they moved and the more their ears were hanging. This first component clearly differentiates lambs being stroked or not. Behavioral and physiological observations support the hypothesis that gentle physical contact with the caregiver is perceived positively by lambs.

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Neogene— Quaternary sedimentary basins in SE Spain contain a record of the geodynamic evolution of the Internal Zone of the Betic Cordillera. The basement of the Internal Zone is composed of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic metasediments which have undergone variable degrees of metamorphism. The External Zones consist of largely unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks which were deposited on the SE margin of the Iberian Plate during the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic. Westward tectonic emplacement of these terranes onto the Iberian Plate took place between the end of the Palaeogene and the middle Miocene. In this paper, we investigate the late Miocene (Tortonian‐Messinian) stratigraphy of two basins in the Internal Zone — the Tabernas‐Sorbas and Huercal Overa Basins. We also consider some recently‐acquired structural data. The Tabernas‐Sorbas and Huercal Overa Basins are east‐west trending depressions bounded to north and south by sierras in which basement rocks are exposed. The basins contain very similar sedimentary successions in which planktonic foraminifera have been preserved. However, the faunal composition is very variable, and the observed sporadic and abrupt changes in foraminiferal populations imply palaeo‐ecologic and palaeo‐oceanographic instabilities which may be associated with local tectonism. Stratigraphic markers were affected by these changes, making precise dating difficult near the Tortonian‐Messinian boundary. Our data indicate that Messinian rocks are more widely distributed than has hitherto been suspected. A Messinian age for the prominent coral limestones in the Tabernas‐Sorbas Basin has long been accepted; similar coral limestones in the Huercal Overa Basin have previously been dated as Tortonian. However, our data show that these carbonates are of Messinian age in both basins. The origin and development of the Tabernas‐Sorbas and Huercal Overa Basins have previously been interpreted in a number of ways. Many (but not all) models favour strike‐slip movement on NE‐SW or east‐west trending basin‐bounding faults. The formation and deformation of the basins occurred during the Tortonian and Messinian, at the same time as the uplift of the sierras. The sierras are here interpreted to represent structural culminations above westward‐verging, deep‐seated thrust faults, and the basins to be lateral folds (or lateral ramps, i.e. oriented parallel to the thrust transport direction). The east‐west trending strike‐slip faults at the margin of the Sorbas‐ Tabernas Basin may be compatible with such a model. Major NE‐SW trending, left‐lateral wrench faults have been described in this area. These faults cut through late Miocene and Pliocene deposits, and are still active at the present day. Although these faults were initiated during the late Miocene, they do not appear to have influenced the development of the Tabernas‐Sorbas and Huercal Overa Basins during the early Tortonian.

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