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Background: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of legal blindness in the working population in developed countries. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) angiography (OCTA) has risen as an essential tool in the diagnosis and control of diabetic patients, with and without DR, allowing visualisation of the retinal and choroidal microvasculature, their qualitative and quantitative changes, the progression of vascular disease, quantification of ischaemic areas, and the detection of preclinical changes. The aim of this article is to analyse the current applications of OCTA and provide an updated overview of them in the evaluation of DR. Methods: A systematic literature search was performed in PubMed and Embase, including the keywords “OCTA” OR “OCT angiography” OR “optical coherence tomography angiography” AND “diabetes” OR “diabetes mellitus” OR “diabetic retinopathy” OR “diabetic maculopathy” OR “diabetic macular oedema” OR “diabetic macular ischaemia”. Of the 1456 studies initially identified, 107 studies were screened after duplication, and those articles that did not meet the selection criteria were removed. Finally, after looking for missing data, we included 135 studies in this review. Results: We present the common and distinctive findings in the analysed papers after the literature search including the diagnostic use of OCTA in diabetes mellitus (DM) patients. We describe previous findings in retinal vascularization, including microaneurysms, foveal avascular zone (FAZ) changes in both size and morphology, changes in vascular perfusion, the appearance of retinal microvascular abnormalities or new vessels, and diabetic macular oedema (DME) and the use of deep learning technology applied to this disease. Conclusion: OCTA findings enable the diagnosis and follow-up of DM patients, including those with no detectable lesions with other devices. The evaluation of retinal and choroidal plexuses using OCTA is a fundamental tool for the diagnosis and prognosis of DR.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the most severe and frequent retinal vascular disease that causes significant visual loss on a global scale. The purpose of our study was to evaluate retinal vascularization in the superficial capillary plexus (SCP), the deep capillary plexus (DCP) and the choriocapillaris (CC) and changes in the foveal avascular zone (FAZ) by optical tomography angiography (OCTA) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) with moderate DR but without diabetic macular oedema (DME). Fifty-four eyes of DM2 with moderate DR (level 43 in the ETDRS scale) and without DME and 73 age-matched healthy eyes were evaluated using OCTA with swept-source (SS)-OCT to measure microvascularization changes in SCP, DCP, CC and the FAZ. The mean ages were 64.06 ± 11.98 and 60.79 ± 8.62 years in the DM2 and control groups, respectively. Visual acuity (VA) was lower in the DM2 patients (p = 0.001), OCTA showed changes in the SCP with a significant diminution in the vascular density and the FAZ area was significantly higher compared to healthy controls, with p < 0.001 at the SCP level. The most prevalent anatomical alterations were peripheral disruption in the SCP (83.3%), microaneurysms (MA) in the SCP and in the DCP (79.6% and 79.6%, respectively) and flow changes in the DCP (81.5%). A significant positive correlation was observed between the DM2 duration and the FAZ area in the SCP (0.304 with p = 0.025). A significant negative correlation was also found between age and CC central perfusion (p < 0.001). In summary, a decrease in the vascular density in DM2 patients with moderate DR without DME was observed, especially at the retinal SPC level. Furthermore, it was found that the FAZ was increased in the DM2 group in both retinal plexuses and was greater in the SCP group.

Purpose To evaluate structural and functional ocular changes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) and moderate diabetic retinopathy (DR) without apparent diabetic macular edema (DME) assessed by optical coherence tomography (OCT) and microperimetry. Methods This was a single-center cross-sectional descriptive study for which 75 healthy controls and 48 DM2 patients with moderate DR were included after applying exclusion criteria (one eye per patient was included). All eyes underwent a complete ophthalmic examination (axial length, macular imaging with swept-source OCT, and MAIA microperimetry). Macular thicknesses, ganglion cell complex (GCC) thicknesses, and central retinal sensitivity were compared between groups, and the relationships between the OCT and microperimetry parameters were evaluated. Results Macular thickness was similar in both groups (242.17 ± 35.0 in the DM2 group vs 260.64 ± 73.9 in the control group). There was a diminution in the parafoveal area thickness in the DM2 group in the GCC complex. Retinal sensitivity was reduced in all sectors in the DM2 group. The central global value was 24.01 ± 5.7 in the DM2 group and 27.31 ± 2.7 in the control group (p < 0.001). Macular integrity was 80.89 ± 26.4 vs 64.70 ± 28.3 (p < 0.001) and total mean threshold was 23.90 ± 4.9 vs 26.48 ± 2.6 (p < 0.001) in the DM2 and control group, respectively. Moderate correlations were detected between the central sector of MAIA microperimetry and retina total central thickness (− 0.347; p = 0.0035). Age, visual acuity, and hemoglobin A1c levels also correlated with retinal sensitivity. Conclusion Macular GCC thickness and central retinal sensitivity were reduced in patients with moderate DR without DME, suggesting the presence of macular neurodegeneration.

Background: We study the retinal function measured by macular integrity assessment microperimetry (MAIA) and structural changes assessed by scanning swept source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) between healthy individuals and patients undergoing pars plana vitrectomy (PPV) after rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RRD). Methods: Cross-sectional study. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) grids were measured by SS-OCT and compared with the MAIA parameters. Results: Thirty-eight eyes with RRD (19 macula-on and 19 macula-off) were compared with 113 healthy eyes. The retinal sensitivity and average total threshold were reduced in all sectors in the RRD group; macular integrity index was increased. Macular thicknesses in total retina and ganglion cell layer (GCL)++ protocols were higher in the RRD group in nasal outer (NO) and central (C) sectors and only in C sector for GCL+ protocol. Thicknesses were lower in total retina, GCL++ protocols in the temporal outer (TO) sector and in the GCL+ protocol in NO sector. Best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) correlated moderately with retinal sensitivity in all sectors and in just several sectors with time between the date of surgery and the test. The central nasal (CN) sector thickness and the average total threshold were higher in the macula-on subgroup. Conclusions: RRD and subsequent surgery results in functional and structural changes, especially in individuals with macular detachment.

Changes in the cornea can influence outcomes in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG). We aimed to evaluate the relevance of changes in corneal biomechanics and intraocular pressure (IOP) in patients undergoing non-penetrating deep sclerectomy (NPDS) with the Esnoper V2000 implant® (AJL Ophthalmic S.A., Gasteiz, Spain). We included 42 eyes of 42 patients with POAG scheduled for NPDS with the Esnoper V2000 implant. Biomechanical properties were measured by Ocular Response Analyzer® G3 (ORA; Reichert Inc., Depew, NY, USA). Corneal hysteresis (CH), corneal resistance factor (CRF), corneal compensated IOP (IOPcc), and Goldmann-correlated IOP (IOPg) were measured the day before surgery and on day 1, 7, and 30 and 2 and 3 months after surgery. CH initially increased, fell below the presurgical value at 30 days after the surgery, and increased again at 2 and 3 months. CRF, IOPcc, and IOPg decreased on the first day after surgery, then followed a trend of increasing but stayed below pre-surgery levels. All values reached statistical significance. While observed changes in corneal biomechanics after NPDS and Esnoper V2000 implant were significant, more studies are needed if we are to understand their influence on corneal biomechanics and their clinical relevance in POAG.

Aim: The objective of this study was to evaluate whether musculoskeletal (MS) ultrasound (US) can be useful in helping medical students to detect joint inflammation through physical examination. Material and methods: The study was performed by two groups of four 6 th year medical students. None had received any previous training in the clinical examination of joints or the use of ultrasound. Students were put through a 5-session training programme on the clinical detection of either knee [group 1] or metacarpophalangeal (MCP) [group 2] inflammation. After an initial training session on physical examination of normal and inflamed joints, the students examined 170 joints from 41 patients attending the hospital outpatient clinic in 4 separate sessions. The same joints were assessed for synovitis with US with the ensuing data compared to that of the students and analyzed for concordance with Cohen's unweighted kappa. Results: In total 60 knees [group 1] and 110 MCP [group 2] were evaluated. The agreement between the presence of arthritis detected by the students in the four sessions and the presence of synovitis detected by US improved from the session I to sessions III with a marked improvement in the last session. Conclusions: MSUS may be an effective technique for helping students to acquire the ability to detect joint inflammation.

PurposeTo describe a case of interlamellar keratitis induced by elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) in a patient with a history of LASIK surgery and the importance of having a strong diagnostic suspicion for establishing adequate treatment.MethodsIntraocular pressure‐induced interlamellar keratitis is one of the potential complications of LASIK refractive surgery. The cases described generally occur a few months after surgery although there are some cases that have been described several years after surgery, usually in a context of uveitis and corticosteroid treatment or silent glaucoma. We present a case of 43‐year‐old woman who came to the emergency room with visual acuity (VA) impairment in the left eye in the setting of elevated intraocular pressure‐induced interlamellar keratitis secondary to the intravitreal corticosteroid implant in her left eye due to a diabetic retinopathy. She underwent LASIK surgery 14 years ago.ResultsThe treatment was based on lowering the intraocular pressure. Oral acetazolamide and topical timolol, bimatoprost and brinzolamide were used. The patient recovered her baseline VA and the IOP were properly controlled posteriorly.ConclusionsThis case shows the importance of considering this diagnosis in patients with corneal haze, elevated intraocular pressure and a history of LASIK surgery to establish an adequate treatment. A full recovery is expected.Bibliography1. Galal A, Artola A, Belda J, (2006) Interface corneal edema secondary to steroid‐induced elevation of intraocular pressure simulating diffuse lamellar keratitis. Journal of refractive surgery.2. Lee V, Sulewski M, Zaidi A (2010) Elevated Intraocular Pressure–Induced Interlamellar Stromal Keratitis Occurring 9 Years After Laser In Situ Keratomileusis. Corneal Journal.3. Lyle W, Jin G, Jin Y (2003) Interface fluid after laser in situ keratomileusis. Journal of refractive surgery.4. Tourtas T, Kopsachilis N, Meiller R, et al. (2010). Pressure‐Induced Interlamellar Stromal Keratitis After Laser In Situ Keratomileusis. Corneal Journal.