The suggested health benefits of consuming tomatoes and tomato-based products have been attributed, in part, to the carotenoids present in these foods. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to (i) analyse carotenoid content and bioaccessibility from different tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) types namely cherry, plum, round, and certain tomatoes-on-the-vine; and (ii) determine if geographical location (Ireland vs Spain) influenced the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids in tomatoes of the same variety. Carotenoid bioaccessibility is defined as the amount of ingested carotenoids that, after digestion, are available for absorption by intestinal cells. Differences were seen in carotenoid content and bioaccessibility between the different tomato types tested. For instance, Irish round high-lycopene tomatoes contained the greatest amounts of lycopene and lutein but lowest levels of beta-carotene compared with the other Irish tomatoes. Furthermore, the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids that were sourced from Ireland and Spain also varied greatly. Spanish tomatoes were generally superior in the content, bioaccessibility, and micelle content of carotenoids. To conclude, our findings suggest that geographical location, rather than the type of tomato, seems to have a more pronounced effect on carotenoid bioaccessibility from tomatoes.

Herbs are a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals such as carotenoids, which are known to exert various positive biological effects. However, there is very limited information in the literature regarding the content and bioavailability of carotenoids from commonly consumed herbs. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were first, to determine the carotenoid content of eight herbs namely basil (Ocimum basilicum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), dill (Anethum graveolens), mint (Metha L.), parsley (Petroselinum crispum), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), sage (Salvia officinalis), and tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus L.); and second, to assess carotenoid bioaccessibility from these herbs using a simulated human in vitro digestion model. Carotenoid bioaccessibility is defined as the amount of carotenoids transferred to micelles after digestion when compared with the original amount present in the food. The content of individual carotenoids varied significantly among the herbs tested. Carotenoid bioaccessibility varied from 0 to 42.8%. Basil and coriander, and their respective micelles, contained the highest levels of beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, and lutein + zeaxanthin. Our findings show that herbs are rich sources of carotenoids and that these foods can significantly contribute to the intake of bioaccessible carotenoids.

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Peppers are a rich source of carotenoids and are one of the top ten contributors to the dietary intake of the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin in both the Republic of Ireland and Spain (1) . Therefore, we determined the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids from red, green and yellow sweet (Bell) peppers. Carotenoid bioaccessibility, which is defined as the amounts of carotenoid(s) that are available for absorption in the gut after digestion, is a good indicator of carotenoid bioavailability (2,3) . Red, green and yellow peppers, which originated in Spain, were purchased from a well-known supermarket chain. All manipulations with the vegetables were performed under subdued (yellow) light to minimise carotenoid photodegradation. Each food was weighed (2 g), homogenised and subjected to an in vitro digestion procedure (2,3) which simulated human gastric and intestinal digestion. Micelle fractions were isolated from digested samples by ultracentrifugation. Both undigested and digested samples were extracted twice using a solvent mixture of hexane, acetone and ethanol (2:1:1); and the carotenoid content of the samples was quantified by HPLC, as previously described (2)