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We provide the first complete set of survival rate estimates for the Endangered Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus from birth into adulthood, as well as the first agespecific reproductive rates for the species. From 2002 to 2016, we obtained individual seal live encounter data through non-invasive monitoring techniques that were analyzed to estimate vital rates of Mediterranean monk seals of the Cabo Blanco (Western Sahara/Mauritania) population. From birth to age 2 mo, when pups molt, survival averaged 0.59, ranging from 0.41 to 0.74 among cohorts. From birth to 1 yr and from 1 to 2 yr, median estimated survival rates were 0.46 and 0.75, respectively. Beyond 2 yr, survival estimates differed by sex: 0.94 for males and 0.97 for females. From 2005 to 2016, we estimated a mean gross reproductive rate of 0.71. The youngest parturient females were 3 yr old. Fitted age-specific reproductive rates increased beginning at age 3 yr and exceeded 0.80 from age 6 to 17 yr. Despite low survival during the first 2 mo of life, the aggregate vital rates of the population are favorable for growth; a Leslie matrix containing our survival and fecundity estimates yielded an intrinsic growth rate of 1.058. Increasing abundance and favorable vital rates are a testament to the efficacy of the many measures taken to promote the conservation of this population.

We provide the first comprehensive demographic assessment of the Endangered Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus population residing in the Madeira Archipelago to identify factors that may impede population growth. Encounter data was obtained for this small, elusive population from 2012 to 2021 using a variety of non-invasive methods. From birth to age 2 mo, when pups molt, survival averaged 0.57. From birth to 1 yr and from 1-2 yr, estimated survival rates were 0.47 and 0.85, respectively. Beyond 2 yr, survival estimates differed by sex: 0.98 for females and 0.90 for males. These survival rates are similar to published estimates from the Cabo Blanco (Western Sahara/Mauritania) population. This is remarkable given that Cabo Blanco is situated adjacent to the extremely productive Canary Current system, whereas the marine environment of Madeira is far less productive. Instead of reducing survival, low marine productivity in Madeira appears to manifest in strikingly depressed reproductive rates. We estimated a mean gross reproductive rate of just 0.31; less than half the value (0.71) reported for Cabo Blanco. The youngest parturient females in Madeira were 6 yr old, whereas 3 yr olds give birth at Cabo Blanco. Despite low fecundity, the monk seal population in Madeira has been recovering, aided by a series of conservation measures implemented since 1988. Our results document that abundance increased from 19 seals in 2013 to 27 in 2021. Despite this undeniable success, the monk seals of Madeira remain vulnerable and require continued monitoring and protection in order to persist.