Freshwater mussels of the Order Unionida provide important ecosystem functions and services, yet many of their populations are in decline. We comprehensively review the status of the 16 currently recognized species in Europe, collating for the first time their life-history traits, distribution, conservation status, habitat preferences, and main threats in order to suggest future management actions. In northern, central, and eastern Europe, a relatively homogeneous species composition is found in most basins. In southern Europe, despite the lower species richness, spatially restricted species make these basins a high conservation priority. Information on freshwater mussels in Europe is unevenly distributed with considerable differences in data quality and quantity among countries and species. To make conservation more effective in the future, we suggest greater international cooperation using standardized protocols and methods to monitor and manage European freshwater mussel diversity. Such an approach will not only help conserve this vulnerable group but also, through the protection of these important organisms, will offer wider benefits to freshwater ecosystems.

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Bivalves are ubiquitous members of freshwater ecosystems and responsible for important functions and services. The present paper revises freshwater bivalve diversity, conservation status and threats at the global scale and discusses future research needs and management actions. The diversity patterns are uneven across the globe with hotspots in the interior basin in the United States of America (USA), Central America, Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Freshwater bivalves are affected by multiple threats that vary across the globe; however, pollution and natural system (habitat) modifications being consistently found as the most impacting. Freshwater bivalves are among the most threatened groups in the world with 40% of the species being near threatened, threatened or extinct, and among them the order Unionida is the most endangered. We suggest that global cooperation between scientists, managers, politicians and general public, and application of new technologies (new generation sequencing and remote sensing, among others) will strengthen the quality of studies on the natural history and conservation of freshwater bivalves. Finally, we introduce

The globalization of economies and trade have facilitated the spread of exotic species including the five most important freshwater suspension feeding invaders Dreissena polymorpha, D. bugensis, Corbicula fluminea, C. fluminalis, and Limnoperna fortunei. We suggest that the spread of these exotic species has not been a continuous process, but rather punctuated by periods of rapid long distance spread (jump), during which species greatly expanded their geographic ranges. Each jump has been associated with changes in the tempo of some human activity, such as the construction of shipping canals for trade, building of reservoirs for water storage and power production, political boundary changes or changes in political systems, which affected the position or permeability of national borders, human migration, changes in the mode and volume of international trade, or recent industrial practices and environmental laws. We hypothesize that the rate of spread of exotic species depends on the spatial scale of spread and may be accelerated or slowed by various human activities. In general, aquatic exotic species may quickly spread along connected waterways in a new continent they invade and soon reach their maximum range (continental scale). However, it will take much longer to colonize all isolated regions (regional scale) and longer still to spread to all isolated lakes and river systems (local scale). The difference in the rate of colonization across scales may be several orders of magnitude.

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We assembled information on 119 species of freshwater macroinvertebrate invaders in North America and Europe, and compared them to all native freshwater species in North America and Europe. We tested whether the invaders were a random or selected group among taxa (phylum or class), water quality requirements, and feeding habit. We found that freshwater macroinvertebrate invaders are not a random selection of species, and are overrepresented by molluscs and crustaceans, while taxa richness of native communities are dominated by insects. Over 35% of native species of aquatic invertebrates in North America are only able to live in areas with excellent or very good water quality, and are intolerant of organic pollution. In contrast, all invaders are tolerant of at least moderate amounts of organic pollution. There was a significant difference in the distribution of feeding habits between native species and invaders: collector-filterers (including suspension feeders) were 2.5-3 times more abundant, and predators were 3-4 times less abundant among invaders than among native invertebrates. The ongoing spread of exotic species affects the biodiversity of selected taxa, shifts communities toward greater tolerance of organic pollution and increases the numbers of suspension feeders, thereby enhancing benthic pelagic coupling in waterbodies with high densities of invaders. Because these processes are very similar in Europe and North America, we suggest that the observed patterns may have a common global effect.

The apple snail Pomacea insularum is an aquatic invasive gastropod native to South America that has the potential to cause harm to aquatic ecosystems, wetland restoration, and agriculture. To predict the potential impact of this snail on aquatic ecosystems, we tested the feeding rate of P. insularum, under laboratory nonchoice experiments, for 3 species of invasive macrophytes and 13 species of native aquatic plants that are important for wetland restoration and health. High levels of consumption were recorded for four native species (Ceratophyllum demersum, Hymenocallis liriosme, Ruppia maritima, and Sagittaria lancifolia) and three invasive species (Colocasia esculenta, Alternanthera philoxeroides, and Eichhornia crassipes). In contrast, less than 10% of the biomass of Spartina alterniflora, Scirpus californicus, Thalia dealbata, and Typha latifolia was consumed by P. insularum over the test period. The palatability of macrophytes was negatively correlated with dry matter content, making our results generalizable to all regions where this invader may be present. Based on our results, wetland restoration in areas invaded by P. insularum should focus on emergent structural species with low palatability. Apple snails should not be considered as agents of biocontrol for invasive plants; although apple snails fed on invasive plants at a high rate, their consumption of many native species was even greater.