During COVID-19, there was increased use of handheld displays in educational settings. There is growing concern that eye health may be affected by prolonged exposure to the light-emitting diodes used as frontlights or backlights in handheld displays. The potential impact of light exposure from tabletsized devices with different display technologies and various spectral outputs was assessed in an in vitro model using human retinal epithelial (ARPE-19) cells. Cellular response was quantified by measuring reactive oxidative species (ROS) and by analyzing mitochondrial morphology. Control experiments established a baseline ROS response to hazardous blue light exposure and also that red light resulted in no detectable ROS response. Under identical conditions, ROS response increased with time for all devices. However, different device spectra caused ROS to accumulate at different rates. When operating the devices in the same mode (day or night), cells accumulated ROS two to three times more slowly on exposure to frontlit electronic paper displays compared to backlit liquid crystal displays. With increasing ROS accumulation, mitochondrial morphology shifted from elongate interconnected features typically observed under normal conditions to rounded disconnected features associated with oxidative stress response.
Understanding the distribution of fluid in a self-contained multi-layer film developing system can yield insights into the mechanistic process and impact the design of the product i.e. hardener levels, timing layers, hydrophobicity of layers. One of the challenges to the microscopist presented with this problem is the difficulty associated with imaging a wet photographic system at sufficient resolution to study any structural changes of the layers. Many indirect methods such as water uptake measurements as a function of time or model structures have been used. None have the ability to look at the individual layers as a function of developing time in it's true “wet state”.
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