Lexicons are standardized vocabularies that facilitate communication across diverse audiences. Lexicons undergo two stages (preparation and development). Lexicon preparation includes selecting suitable panelists who are highly trained and capable of describing the product category, selecting samples that represent the entire product space, and developing protocols that panelists systematically follow when creating the lexicon. The development stage includes reviewing protocols before evaluation ensues, generating terms and definitions that describe the products, selecting references that clarify the terms, reviewing examples to further train the panel on important attributes, and finalizing the lexicon. Examples of published lexicons exist for foods, beverages, home care products, personal care products and fragrances. Publishing lexicons is beneficial because it promotes standardization of sensory vocabulary across multiple panels, companies and countries. Ideally, a published lexicon has the complete list of products from which it was developed, all attribute terms, definitions for every attribute and references for every attribute. Practical Applications Sensory analysts working with trained descriptive panels need well defined and documented words to consistently and correctly describe products of interest. These lexicons provide a tool for communication within the panel and allow sensory analysts to communicate with product developers, marketing professionals and suppliers. Ultimately the terminology provides a basis for understanding the differences among products in a category and is the basis for designing consumer research questionnaires. Lexicons are prominent in the sensory literature. Synthesizing these publications and establishing best practices for lexicon development promotes consistency and reproducibility across the field of sensory science. Review of existing lexicons reveals criteria for successful and useful versions. As globalization spreads modern‐day businesses to new locations, consistency in sensory evaluation becomes increasingly important to establish the success of product development.

In this paper, we review published studies to assess the influence of time preferences on human health behaviour. Our review indicates that elicited discount rates for health have been found to be higher than those for money in both the social and private context. We discuss the importance of discount rates for public policy since high time discount rates can contribute to governmental emphasis on acute health care, rather than preventive health care. We then examine how time preferences interrelate with specific health concerns such as smoking or obesity. We find that even when time preferences are elicited in the monetary domain, they can be successful in predicting smoking cessation and likewise for obesity. We also discuss how time preferences relate with teen risk taking behavior. JEL codes: D91, I0

Sensory wheels provide standardized vocabularies for product categories and thus enable better communication among sensory scientists, product developers and their business partners. Recently, increased interest in spices prompted the development of an updated dried spice and herb aroma wheel, the original of which was created at McCormick and Company, Inc. (McCormick) during the mid-1990s. The new version of the McCormick Spice Wheel (MSW) was generated from lexicons developed at McCormick, a sample of which were validated to still be appropriate through cluster analysis, principal component analysis and correlations. The final spice * wheel was validated by a team of sensory scientists (n = 5) including panel leaders (n = 3) and a group of trained descriptive panelists (n = 9). The final MSW has 17 categories and 56 attributes. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSLexicons allow sensory scientists to evaluate a product or product category with an organized, established vocabulary. Wheels are visual representations of these lexicons and offer a standardized vocabulary for sensory scientists and their business associates, particularly those in product development. Wheels can be useful in teaching descriptive panelists which attributes are related to each other. This can be useful in panel discussions in which there is dissension about the definition of a particular attribute. If panelists understand that two or more attributes are related in a wider perspective, then consensus flows more naturally. Additionally, wheels are helpful in business presentations in which sensory scientists must explain a conceptual sensory space or during benchtop evaluations in which sensory scientists must assist product developers in understanding the sensory properties of a food product.

Expanding interest in the nutraceutical market inspires sensory-and nutraceutical-oriented optimization methods. Black cherry (BlkCh), Concord grape (Con) and pomegranate (Pom) juices were blended according to a mixture design (seven juice treatments) and evaluated by descriptive and consumer panels. Consumers (n = 100) evaluated estimated overall liking (OL), pre-and postantioxidant information OL, appearance OL, just-about-right (JAR) attributes, purchase intent and familiarity to determine an optimum juice formulation and the influence of consumer characteristics on acceptance of nutraceutical-rich juices. Descriptive (n = 10) and consumer (n = 100) data showed that Con juice attributes (sweetness, Concord flavor, caramelized flavor) were positive, and that the attributes of BlkCh and Pom juices were negative. Post-antioxidant information OL was high for Con juice (7.48) and low for BlkCh juice (5.01) and Pom juice (5.01). Using the desirability function, juice blend solutions were generated based on OL for pre-antioxidant-information (77% Con + 3% Pom + 20% BlkCh) and post-antioxidant information (75% Con + 12% Pom + 13% BlkCh). Pom juice had the most antioxidants, and the post-antioxidant information solution had a higher level of Pom. JAR analysis showed that 33% Con + 33% Pom + 33% BlkCh juice had fewer nonoptimal attributes than 100% Pom or 100% BlkCh juice, but had more antioxidants than 100% Con juice. Evaluating consumer OL, diagnostic and descriptive data provided a comprehensive understanding of how products could be adjusted to maximize consumer acceptance.

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Blackberries (Rubus subgenus Rubus Watson) are grown worldwide for commercial fresh markets. Physiochemical and sensory attributes were evaluated on fresh fruit of five blackberry cultivars (Natchez, Osage, Ouachita, Prime-Ark® 45, and Prime-Ark® Traveler) and six advanced breeding selections from the University of Arkansas Fruit Breeding Program. The physiochemical attributes of blackberries were within a commercially acceptable range (soluble solids = 8% to 11%, pH = 3.0–3.6, titratable acidity = 0.7% to 1.4%, berry weight = 6 to 14 g, drupelets/berry = 50 to 150, and pyrenes/berry = 51 to 115). ‘Natchez’ had the highest berry weight, berry length, drupelets/berry, and pyrenes/berry, whereas A-2453 was the lowest for these attributes. The highest nutraceutical levels were found in ‘Osage’ (total flavonols and total anthocyanins), A-2434 (total ellagitannins) and A-2453 (total phenolics). A trained descriptive sensory panel (n = 9) evaluated fresh blackberry attributes for appearance, basic tastes, feeling factors, aromatics, and texture using a 15-point scale (0 = less of the attribute; 15 = more of the attribute in terms of intensity). The descriptive panel identified ‘Natchez’ as having the largest descriptive size of berry with the highest overall aromatics and A-2453 as the smallest, glossiest, and firmest. Although A-2491 had the highest soluble solids, the descriptive panelists could not differentiate sweetness among the genotypes, but found A-2491 the least sour. A consumer sensory panel (n = 74) evaluated appearance, flavor, and texture attributes of blackberries on a 9-point verbal hedonic liking scale (1 = extremely dislike; 9 = like extremely) and 5-point just about right (JAR) scale (1 = not nearly enough; 3 = JAR; 5 = much too much). In terms of overall impression and overall flavor, A-2491 and ‘Prime-Ark® Traveler’ had the highest liking; average attributes for these blackberries were a berry weight of 9.1 g, soluble solids of 10.0%, titratable acidity of 0.95%, and a soluble solids/titratable acid ratio of 11.9. ‘Prime-Ark® Traveler’ also had the highest liking for appearance and berry size. A-2453, the glossiest berry, had the highest liking for berry color. Consumer panelists liked the firmness of the blackberries including those that were very firm, such as A-2453, but did not indicate differences in liking among genotypes. Consumers found the size of ‘Ouachita’, ‘Prime-Ark® Traveler’, and ‘Prime-Ark® 45’ (berry weight ≈8.3 g) JAR, but ‘Natchez’ (14.3 g) too large. Consumers found the sweetness and sourness of A-2491 JAR. Consumer overall impression and flavor of blackberries were positively correlated to consumer liking of berry shape and color and negatively correlated to the descriptive attributes for sourness, bitterness, green/unripe aromatic, and amount of seeds. Consumer liking of appearance was positively correlated with consumer liking of berry size, shape, color, and descriptive uniformity of color and glossiness. To produce a commercially marketed fresh-market blackberry, there are many characteristics that are important, but our data for these genotypes suggest that a desired blackberry should have a berry weight of 8–10 g, soluble solids of 9% to 11%, titratable acidity of 0.9% to 1%, and a soluble solids/titratable acid ratio of 10 to 13. However, optimum sugar and acidity levels require more investigation including other factors in flavor and aromatics. Evaluating the physiochemical and sensory attributes of fresh fruit is an important tool that can be used to determine commercial potential for selections and cultivars.

As human life expectancy increases, the potential for nutraceutical products expands. Economic theory and sensory science were integrated to determine (1) consumer acceptance of potential health statements about a juice blend and (2) the relative satisfaction consumers derived from sensory and nutraceutical characteristics of a juice blend. Four nonhypothetical experimental auction sessions with 11–12 consumers/session were held (n = 47) to elicit willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) for an optimized juice blend (87% Concord grape and 13% blackberry). Participants in two sessions tasted the product first and then received a potential health statement about the juice blend regarding positive benefits of anthocyanins before the third round (vice versa for the other two sessions). The WTP for the juice blend was higher when subjects tasted the product first and then received the potential health statement, which indicated a contrast effect caused by treatment order. Agreement with the potential health statement was not correlated to WTP. Nutraceutical product launch should be accompanied with in‐store taste sessions to introduce consumers to product sensory properties. Practical Applications Consumers' willingness‐to‐pay for nutraceuticals can be assessed through nonhypothetical experimental auctions. Nonhypothetical value elicitation methods use real money and products to advantageously eliminate hypothetical bias. Experimental auctions allow product attributes such as nutraceutical status to be assessed along with sensory characteristics; hence, auctions can more easily capture all product aspects that contribute to consumer liking. Understanding how consumers value all attributes can provide crucial information about a product's marketplace sustainability.

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