Background: Water quality testing is dictated by microbial agents found at the time of sampling in reference to their acceptable risk levels. Human activities might contaminate valuable water resources and add to the microbial load present in water bodies. Therefore, the effects of human activities on the microbial quality of rivers collected from twelve catchments in the Vhembe District in South Africa were investigated, with samples analyzed for total coliform (TC) and Eschericha coli (E. coli) contents. Methods: Physical parameters and various human activities were recorded for each sampling site. The Quanti-Tray® method was adopted for the assessment of TC and E. coli contents in the rivers over a two-year period. A multiplex polymerase chain (PCR) method was used to characterize the strains of E. coli found. Results: The microbial quality of the rivers was poor with both TC and E. coli contents found to be over acceptable limits set by the South African Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). No significant difference (p > 0.05) was detected between TC and E. coli risks in dry and wet seasons. All six pathogenic E. coli strains were identified and Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), atypical Enteropathogenic E. coli (a-EPEC) and Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) were the most prevalent E. coli strains detected (respectively, 87%, 86% and 83%). Conclusions: The study indicated that contamination in the majority of sampling sites, due to human activities such as car wash, animal grazing and farming, poses health risks to communities using the rivers for various domestic chores. It is therefore recommended that more education by the respective departments is done to avert pollution of rivers and prevent health risks to the communities in the Vhembe District.

Limited access to water and sanitation is a risk to health, dignity, and ability to engage in occupations. This article aims to: 1) discuss the current and historical factors affecting access to water and sanitation in rural South Africa, and 2) explore the occupational implications of water access, particularly for older adults and people with disability in rural South Africa. A literature review was carried out through searching JSTOR, Scopus, and MEDLINE databases and using framework analysis to interpret the retrieved documents. This paper also reports a thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews, conducted in 2012 in a rural area of South Africa. Environmental, political, social-economic and attitudinal factors were identified as impacting water access and occupation, in both the documentary analysis and the semi-structured interviews. Due to South Africa’s history, injustice has occurred in the forms of occupational apartheid and occupational deprivation. We argue that supply systems must enable people to easily access more water than is essential for survival, so that people can participate in meaningful and productive occupations. Therefore, access to water should be considered part of an occupational right. Recognising this right will be an integral step in ensuring that water supplies are improved to support better livelihoods, and to achieve economic and social empowerment, and quality of life for all, in line with many of the United Nations’ new Sustainable Development Goals

People living in rural areas still rely on the use of environmental water that is contaminated by human and animal activities. This study assessed the occurrence of human enteric pathogens in rivers that are used by rural communities Vhembe District of South Africa as a source of drinking water covering two seasons (winter and summer) over a one-year period. Water quality was assessed using physico characteristics and indicator organisms (total coliforms, E. coli, Clostridium perfringens). Pathogens tested included bacteria (Pathogenic E. coli, Salmonella-, Shigella- and Vibrio spp.), protozoa (Cryptosporidium- and Giardia spp.), and enteric viruses (Rota-, Noro-, Entero-, and Adenoviruses) while using published molecular protocols. The results showed that the indicator bacteria counts exceeded South African drinking water quality guideline limits and pathogenic E. coli was detected in the samples. No Shigella spp. were isolated, while Vibrio spp. and Salmonella spp. were present; parasites were detected in four rivers and Enteric viruses were predominantly detected in the winter season. The results indicated the poor condition of water and the potential health risks to consumers highlighting the need for implementing river catchment management strategies for continued sustainability in these rivers.

Objective To assess, within communities experiencing Ebola virus outbreaks, the risks associated with the disposal of human waste and to generate recommendations for mitigating such risks. Methods A team with expertise in the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework identified waste products from the care of individuals with Ebola virus disease and constructed, tested and confirmed flow diagrams showing the creation of such products. After listing potential hazards associated with each step in each flow diagram, the team conducted a hazard analysis, determined critical control points and made recommendations to mitigate the transmission risks at each control point. Findings The collection, transportation, cleaning and shared use of blood-soiled fomites and the shared use of latrines contaminated with blood or bloodied faeces appeared to be associated with particularly high levels of risk of Ebola virus transmission. More moderate levels of risk were associated with the collection and transportation of material contaminated with bodily fluids other than blood, shared use of latrines soiled with such fluids, the cleaning and shared use of fomites soiled with such fluids, and the contamination of the environment during the collection and transportation of blood-contaminated waste. Conclusion The risk of the waste-related transmission of Ebola virus could be reduced by the use of full personal protective equipment, appropriate hand hygiene and an appropriate disinfectant after careful cleaning. Use of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework could facilitate rapid responses to outbreaks of emerging infectious disease.

Sporadic outbreaks of diarrhoea in children in the Vhembe rural areas could be an indication of contamination in drinking water sources. In areas where improved water sources are used, not all rural households experience the benefits of these improved water sources. Water samples were collected from boreholes in three wards in the Vhembe District to determine microbiological risks over a 5-month period. A Water Point Mapping tool was used to indicate the borehole distribution. Water samples were taken from each functional borehole and analysed for total coliform and Escherichia coli counts, electrical conductivity, pH and temperature. A multiplex PCR protocol was used for identification of pathogenic E. coli. A total of 125 boreholes were identified of which only 12 were functional. Seven boreholes tested positive for total coliforms and E. coli counts. Four boreholes (33.3%) tested positive for diarrhoeagenic E. coli. Fifty-eight percent (58%) of water samples were without health risks, 17% were low risk and 25% could cause infection according to the South African water quality standards. This study indicated the importance of the role of the Municipalities and the maintenance plans that need to ensure that all boreholes are functional and provide safe drinking water to the rural communities.