Human Enteric Pathogens in Eight Rivers Used as Rural Household Drinking Water Sources in the Northern Region of South Africa

Abstract

People living in rural areas still rely on the use of environmental water that is contaminated by human and animal activities. This study assessed the occurrence of human enteric pathogens in rivers that are used by rural communities Vhembe District of South Africa as a source of drinking water covering two seasons (winter and summer) over a one-year period. Water quality was assessed using physico characteristics and indicator organisms (total coliforms, E. coli, Clostridium perfringens). Pathogens tested included bacteria (Pathogenic E. coli, Salmonella-, Shigella- and Vibrio spp.), protozoa (Cryptosporidium- and Giardia spp.), and enteric viruses (Rota-, Noro-, Entero-, and Adenoviruses) while using published molecular protocols. The results showed that the indicator bacteria counts exceeded South African drinking water quality guideline limits and pathogenic E. coli was detected in the samples. No Shigella spp. were isolated, while Vibrio spp. and Salmonella spp. were present; parasites were detected in four rivers and Enteric viruses were predominantly detected in the winter season. The results indicated the poor condition of water and the potential health risks to consumers highlighting the need for implementing river catchment management strategies for continued sustainability in these rivers.

Leaving no stone unturned in light of the COVID-19 faecal-oral hypothesis? A water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) perspective targeting low-income countries

“… Poor sanitation and hygiene : Unhygienic practices such as open defaecation, and the use of unimproved and poorly designed on-site sanitation systems such as pit latrines, bucket latrines and septic tanks are common. In most informal settlements such as slums, squatter camps and refugee camps, on-site sanitation systems may be closely juxtaposed with vulnerable drinking water sources such as wetlands, and surface and shallow groundwater systems ( Potgieter et al, 2020 ). This is because, in such settings, the landholding per household is very small, leading to overcrowding.…”

“…Such research should also target and prioritize areas associated with putative faecal contamination such as informal settlements including slums, squatter camps and refugee camps. Communities in such informal settlements often rely on untreated raw water abstracted from shared and unsafe drinking water sources, which are often closely juxtaposed with on-site sanitation systems ( Pujari et al, 2012 : Potgieter et al, 2020 ). Developing countries with recurrent outbreaks of human infections transmitted via the faecal-oral route such as cholera and typhoid could constitute the ideal settings or ‘ worst-case scenario ’ to investigate the faecal-oral hypothesis.…”

Cryptosporidium Infections in Africa—How Important Is Zoonotic Transmission? A Review of the Evidence

“…that seem unlikely to provide convincing results (e.g., sample volumes as low as 10 ml, with minimal processing steps, and mZn for detection of oocysts). Nevertheless, it is these articles that often provide data indicating the highest proportion of samples considered positive (over 40%), while papers using standardized methods for water analysis (those of ISO or US Environmental Protection Agency) tend to report lower proportions of positive samples [e.g., the work of Morris et al from Kenya (83), Kifleyohannes and Robertson from Ethiopia (84), or Potgjeter et al from South Africa (85)]. This suggests that the lack of specific detection techniques used in other studies may have resulted in false positive results.…”

Detection of Free-Living Amoebae and Their Intracellular Bacteria in Borehole Water before and after a Ceramic Pot Filter Point-of-Use Intervention in Rural Communities in South Africa

“…The indicator E. coli counts were used as the norm to indicate the effectivity of the point-of-use PFP filter, and Table 1 showed that the filters removed the indicator bacteria from the borehole water. However, the average filter performance of the Ghana ceramic pot filters did not meet the recommended 2 log10 reduction for home treatment [ 172 ]. The PFP ceramic filters are manufactured in different low-income countries, and although the design is the same, the manufacturing processes and the materials used have an impact on the efficacy of the filters [ 172 , 173 , 174 ].…”