The fourth dimension in 4D printing refers to the ability of materials to alter its form after they are produced, thereby providing additional functional capabilities and performance driven applications. Stimuli materials provide this capability through the use of shape memory polymers. For this research, the property of programming the determined shape is achieved through controlled heat under laboratory conditions. This paper shows the potential to process and experiment with thermoplastic polyurethane as a shape memory material. Taking a step further, we ascertain the properties of this material through extrusion-based additive manufacturing processes and produce parts for testing. The results show that the characteristics of the 3D printed parts successfully retain the property of the shape memory and the recovery force allows this to be utilised as a mechanical actuator. The recovery stress has been recorded to be between 0.45 MPa and 0.61 MPa (at feed rate 990 mm/min).The maximum level of recovery stress is similar to the same material being processed through conventional compression moulding. Lastly, we designed and produced a coil as an actuator to demonstrate that the same material can be extended to other applications.

No abstract

The use of natural fibres allows reducing environmental impact, due to their natural renewable origin and the lower energy needed for their production and processing. This work presents the mechanical characterization of a newly developed technical textile, with banana fibre treated by enzymes, comparing experimental results with numerical simulation based on the definition of the unit cell at micromechanical level. The experimental test shows that the composite with the fabric of banana fibre presents worse mechanical behaviour than the one with commercial flax fibre. The presence of wool, necessary for producing the yarn, reduces the mechanical properties of the banana textile. The numerical simulation had an acceptable error compared with the experimental results, with a global average error of 9%, showing that the predictive modelling based on the multiscale method is suitable for the design process of this kind of composite.

4D printing is a technology that combines the capabilities of 3D printing with materials that can transform its geometry after being produced (e.g. Shape Memory Polymers). These advanced materials allow shape change by applying different stimulus such as heating. A 4D printed part will usually have 2 different shapes: a programmed shape (before the stimulus is applied), and the original shape (which is recovered once the stimulus has been applied). Lightweight parametric optimization techniques are used to find the best combination of design variables to reduce weight and lower manufacturing costs. However, current optimization techniques available in commercial 3D CAD software are not prepared for optimization of multiple shapes. The fundamental research question is how to optimize a design that will have different shapes with different boundary conditions and requirements. This paper presents a new lightweight parametric optimization method to solve this limitation. The method combines the Latin Hypercube design of experiments, Kriging metamodel and specifically designed genetic algorithms. The optimization strategy was implemented and automated using a CAD software. This method recognizes both shapes of the part as a single design and allows the lightweight parametric optimization to retain the minimum mechanical properties for both shapes.

This paper assesses the aspects related to sustainability of polymer composites, focusing on the two main components of a composite, the matrix and the reinforcement/filler. Most studies analyzed deals with the assessment of the composite performance, but not much attention has been paid to the life cycle assessment (LCA), biodegradation or recyclability of these materials, even in those papers containing the terms “sustainable” (or its derivate words), “green” or “eco”. Many papers claim about the sustainable or renewable character of natural fiber composites, although, again, analysis about recyclability, biodegradation or carbon footprint determination of these materials have not been studied in detail. More studies focusing on the assessment of these composites are needed in order to clarify their potential environmental benefits when compared to other types of composites, which include compounds not obtained from biological resources. LCA methodology has only been applied to some case studies, finding enhanced environmental behavior for natural fiber composites when compared to synthetic ones, also showing the potential benefits of using recycled carbon or glass fibers. Biodegradable composites are considered of lesser interest to recyclable ones, as they allow for a higher profitability of the resources. Finally, it is interesting to highlight the enormous potential of waste as raw material for composite production, both for the matrix and the filler/reinforcement; these have two main benefits: no resources are used for their growth (in the case of biological materials), and fewer residues need to be disposed.

This paper summarises the results obtained from the characterisation of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) plant and fibres. The research is part of a project developed in the Macaronesia region, of which the aim is to demonstrate the feasibility of using biomass from invasive plant species in the composites sector as a way of financing control campaigns and habitats conservation labours. An experimental procedure for the extraction of fibre bundles from this plant was developed, and the material obtained was characterised in terms of chemical composition, thermogravimetry and infrared spectra to evaluate its potential application in the production of polymeric composite materials as a strategy for the valorisation of residual biomass from this invasive species in Macaronesia. Thermoplastic matrix composites with fibre content up to 40 wt.% were produced and their mechanical properties under tensile, flexural and impact loading were determined. No references on the preparation of composite materials with polyolefin matrices and giant reed fibres have been found. Results obtained from mechanical tests show a good performance of the manufactured composites, with a significant increase in both flexural and tensile stiffness; the flexural modulus is almost tripled for PE-based composites and rises to 88% with respect to PP matrix. The ultimate flexural strength and the tensile and flexural yield strength are kept at acceptable values compared to neat polymer materials, although ultimate tensile strength and impact resistance are significantly affected when natural fibres are added.

This paper compares the mechanical properties of different natural fiber composites produced by rotational molding as a way of waste valorization from campaigns to control invasive plant species in Macaronesia. Rotomolded parts produced with polymeric matrices (polyethylene) and filled with up to 20% by weight of cellulosic fibers obtained from Arundo donax L., Pennisetum setaceum, and Ricinus communis plants were characterized in terms of tensile, flexural, and impact strength. It was found that the sieving of natural fibers allowed for their introduction in higher loadings, from 10 (for un-sieved material) to 20%; fiber size greatly affected the mechanical properties of the final parts, although some combinations were proven not to reduce the mechanical properties of the neat resin. This study is a first approach to the valorization of residues obtained from periodic campaigns of the control of invasive species performed by public authorities, usually at the local level. It is important to highlight that the main objective of this research did not focus on economically profitable activity; instead, it was focused on the reduction of wastes to be disposed from ecosystem maintenance actions and the investment of potential income into preservation policies.

Summary A fire extinguisher is a portable element designed to fight emerging fires, with a useful life of around 20 years. After this period, they are withdrawn from the market. All their components (shell, hose, and so on) are usually separated and recycled, except the chemical powder used as extinguishing agent, which usually consists at monoammonium phosphate (MAP), widely used in the production of agricultural fertilizers. Although there are several companies dedicated to this task, in the case of remote areas or islands such as the Canary Islands, there are no options to recycle this component and the shipping is unaffordable. As a result, the companies of this sector (distributors of fire‐fighting systems) tend to accumulate them in large quantities. In order to give a second use to this dry chemical powder, this work analyzes its potential as an additive for a polyethylene matrix. This would not only take advantage of a currently unused raw material but would also improve the fire resistance performance of polyolefins thanks to the fireproof properties of the extinguishing agent. Samples with different proportions of dry chemical powder were elaborated and tested to determine their mechanical and fire properties, achieving composites with significant improved fire performance regarding the net matrix.