Using evidence from Great Britain, the United States, Belgium and Spain, it is demonstrated in this article that in integrated and divided nations alike, citizens are more strongly attached to political parties than to the social groups that the parties represent. In all four nations, partisans discriminate against their opponents to a degree that exceeds discrimination against members of religious, linguistic, ethnic or regional out‐groups. This pattern holds even when social cleavages are intense and the basis for prolonged political conflict. Partisan animus is conditioned by ideological proximity; partisans are more distrusting of parties furthest from them in the ideological space. The effects of partisanship on trust are eroded when partisan and social ties collide. In closing, the article considers the reasons that give rise to the strength of ‘partyism’ in modern democracies.

This study exploits the opening of the experimental lab in Oxford to compare the behavior of students and non-students in a number of classic experimental games, some of which involve other-regarding preferences (Trust Game, Dictator Game, and Public Goods Game) and others which have game forms that are strategically

This paper analyzes if men and women are expected to behave differently regarding altruism. Since the dictator game provides the most suitable design for studying altruism and generosity in the lab setting, we use a modified version to study the beliefs involved in the game. Our results are substantial: men and women are expected to behave differently. Moreover, while women believe that women are more generous, men consider that women are as generous as men.We appreciate comments from Josemari Aizpurua, Shoshana Neuman and participants in seminars at Bar-Ilan University, Max Planck Institute of Economics, Univ. Publica Navarra. Tim Cason and one anonymous referee made substantial comments on the previous draft. Financial support from CICYT (SEJ2007-62081/ECON and SEJ2006-00959/SOCI) and FCEA (SOC2.05/43) is gratefully acknowledge. Martha Gaustad revised the English grammar. Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (http://dx

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We test the conjecture that becoming unemployed erodes the extent to which a person acknowledges earned entitlement. We use behavioral experiments to generate incentive-compatible measures of individuals' tendencies to acknowledge earned entitlement and incorporate these experiments in a two-stage study. In the first stage, participants' acknowledgment of earned entitlement was measured by engaging them in the behavioral experiments, and their individual employment status and other relevant socioeconomic characteristics were recorded. In the second stage, a year later, the process was repeated using the same instruments. The combination of the experimentally generated data and the longitudinal design allows us to investigate our conjecture using a difference-in-difference approach, while ruling out the pure selfinterest confound. We report evidence consistent with a large, negative effect of becoming unemployed on the acknowledgment of earned entitlement.U nderstanding how becoming unemployed affects people's reasoning is important. Unemployment and the poverty it engenders is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, low subjective well-being and self-esteem, heightened aversion to risk, and a greater tendency to discount the future within the individual (1-7), and higher rates of suicide, murder, and alcoholrelated death across countries (8, 9). We investigate a different kind of effect, a moral consequence of unemployment that, alongside unemployment's effects on mental health, could explain why people are disengaging from the labor market (10). We test the conjecture that becoming unemployed erodes the extent to which a person acknowledges earned entitlement, i.e., acknowledges an individual's right to keep, consume, or dispose of that which was gained through his or her own effort or endeavor. This right and its acknowledgment underpins labor market functioning and guides taxation and government-spending policy worldwide (11).Survey-based studies find a positive association between low economic status and stated preferences for redistributive taxation and spending (12-16). However, although these surveybased results are consistent with our conjecture, they are also consistent with pure self-interest; purely self-interested individuals would state a preference for minimal or no redistribution when they are relatively well-off as this would minimize their tax burden, but would shift to favoring redistribution on becoming relatively poor owing to job loss (17).We used behavioral experiments to generate incentivecompatible measures of individuals' tendencies to acknowledge earned entitlement that cannot be driven by pure self-interest (18). We incorporated these experiments into an unusual two-stage study. In the first stage, participants' acknowledgment of earned entitlement was measured by engaging them in the behavioral experiments, and their individual employment status and other relevant socioeconomic characteristics were recorded. In the second stage, a year later, the process was repeated using the sa...