No abstract

It has been postulated that endogenous kynurenic acid (KYNA) modulates ␣7* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and NMDA receptor activities in the brain.a To test this hypothesis, ␣7* nAChR and NMDA receptor functions were studied in mice with a targeted null mutation in the gene encoding kynurenine aminotransferase II (mKat-2 ؊/؊ mice), an enzyme responsible for brain KYNA synthesis. At 21 postnatal days, mKat-2 ؊/؊ mice had lower hippocampal KYNA levels and higher spontaneous locomotor activity than wild-type (WT) mice. At this age, ␣7* nAChR activity induced by exogenous application of agonists to CA1 stratum radiatum interneurons was ϳ65% higher in mKat-2 ؊/؊ than WT mice. Binding studies indicated that the enhanced receptor activity may not have resulted from an increase in ␣7* nAChR number. In 21-d-old mKat-2 ؊/؊ mice, endogenous ␣7* nAChR activity in the hippocampus was also increased, leading to an enhancement of GABAergic activity impinging onto CA1 pyramidal neurons that could be reduced significantly by acute exposure to KYNA (100 nM). The activities of GABA A and NMDA receptors in the interneurons and of ␣3␤4* nAChRs regulating glutamate release onto these neurons were comparable between mKat-2 ؊/؊ and WT mice. By 60 d of age, KYNA levels and GABAergic transmission in the hippocampus and locomotor activity were similar between mKat-2 ؊/؊ and WT mice. Our findings that ␣7* nAChRs are major targets for KYNA in the brain may provide insights into the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease, disorders in which brain KYNA levels are increased and ␣7* nAChR functions are impaired.

Human fetal exposure to valproic acid (VPA), a widely-used anti-epileptic and mood-stabilizing drug, leads to an increased incidence of behavioral and intellectual impairments including autism; VPA administration to pregnant rats and mice at gestational days 12.5 (E12.5) or E13.5 leads to autistic-like symptoms in the offspring and is widely used as an animal model for autism. We report here that this VPA administration protocol transiently increased both BDNF mRNA and BDNF protein levels 5–6-fold in the fetal mouse brain. VPA exposure in utero induced smaller increases in the expression of mRNA encoding the other neurotrophins, NT3 (2.5-fold) and NT4 (2-fold). Expression of the neurotrophin receptors, trkA, trkB and trkC were minimally affected, while levels of the low-affinity neurotrophin receptor, p75NTR, doubled. Of the nine 5′-untranslated exons of the mouse BDNF gene, only expression of exons I, IV and VI was stimulated by VPA in utero. In light of the well-established role of BDNF in regulating neurogenesis and the laminar fate of postmitotic neurons in the developing cortex, an aberrant increase in BDNF expression in the fetal brain may contribute to VPA-induced cognitive disorders by altering brain development.

These findings support the hypotheses that the nicotinic cholinergic system modulates social and repetitive behaviors and may be a therapeutic target to treat behavior deficits in ASD. Further, the BTBR mouse may be valuable for investigations of the role of nAChRs in social deficits and repetitive behavior.

Strokes are perhaps the most serious complications of sickle cell disease (SCD) and by the fifth decade occur in approximately 25% of patients. While most patients do not develop strokes, mounting evidence indicates that even without brain abnormalities on imaging studies, SCD patients can present profound neurocognitive dysfunction. We sought to evaluate the neurocognitive behavior profile of humanized SCD mice (Townes, BERK) and to identify hematologic and neuropathologic abnormalities associated with the behavioral alterations observed in these mice. Heterozygous and homozygous Townes mice displayed severe cognitive deficits shown by significant delays in spatial learning compared to controls. Homozygous Townes also had increased depression- and anxiety-like behaviors as well as reduced performance on voluntary wheel running compared to controls. Behavior deficits observed in Townes were also seen in BERKs. Interestingly, most deficits in homozygotes were observed in older mice and were associated with worsening anemia. Further, neuropathologic abnormalities including the presence of large bands of dark/pyknotic (shrunken) neurons in CA1 and CA3 fields of hippocampus and evidence of neuronal dropout in cerebellum were present in homozygotes but not control Townes. These observations suggest that cognitive and behavioral deficits in SCD mice mirror those described in SCD patients and that aging, anemia, and profound neuropathologic changes in hippocampus and cerebellum are possible biologic correlates of those deficits. These findings support using SCD mice for studies of cognitive deficits in SCD and point to vulnerable brain areas with susceptibility to neuronal injury in SCD and to mechanisms that potentially underlie those deficits.

The pain phenotype in sickle cell disease (SCD) patients is highly variable. A small percentage of SCD patients experience many vaso-occlusive crises/year, 5% of patients account for over 30% of pain episodes, while 39% report few episodes of severe pain. Clearly, a better understanding of the pathobiology of SCD is needed to improve its therapy. Humanized sickle cell mice recapitulate several phenotypes of SCD patients and provide a model for the study of SCD pain. Researchers have shown that one strain of humanized SCD mice, the BERK strain, has abnormal pain phenotype. However, the nociception phenotype of another humanized SCD mouse strain, the Townes strain, has not been described. In a large cross-sectional study of BERK and Townes SCD mice, we examined thermosensory response and sensory nerve fiber function using sine-wave electrical stimulation at 2000, 250, and 5 Hz to stimulate preferentially Aβ, Aδ, and C sensory nerve fibers, respectively. We found that BERK and Townes mice, compared to respective controls, had decreases in 2000, 250, and 5 Hz current vocalization thresholds in patterns that suggest sensitization of a broad spectrum of sensory nerve fibers. In addition, the pattern of sensitization of sensory fibers varied according to strain, sex, age, and mouse genotype. In a similarly variable pattern, Townes and BERKs also had significantly altered sensitivity to noxious thermal stimuli in agreement with what has been shown by others. In summary, the analysis of somatosensory function using sine-wave electrical stimulation in humanized sickle cell mice suggests that in SCD, both myelinated and unmyelinated, fibers are sensitized. The pattern of sensory fiber sensitization is distinct from that observed in pain models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain. These findings raise the possibility that sensitization of a broad spectrum of sensory fibers might contribute to the altered and variable nociception phenotype in SCD.

No abstract

The pathophysiology of sickle cell disease (SCD) is driven by chronic inflammation. We show that elevated cell-free DNA (cfDNA) in SCD patients is not just a prognostic biomarker but contributes to the pathological inflammation. Within the elevated cfDNA, SCD patients had significantly higher proportion of mitochondrial (cf-mtDNA) to nuclear cfDNA (cf-nDNA) compared to healthy controls. Additionally, mtDNA in patient samples showed significant disproportionately increased hypomethylation compared to healthy controls, that was further increased in crises when compared to steady-state. Using flow cytometry, structured illumination microscopy and electron microscopy, we showed that circulating SCD red blood cells abnormally retained their mitochondria, and thus likely to be the source of the elevated cf-mtDNA in SCD patients. Patient plasma containing high levels of cf-mtDNA triggered formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) that was substantially reduced by inhibition of TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) implicating activation of the cGAS-STING pathway. cf-mtDNA is an erythrocytic-DAMP, highlighting an underappreciated role of mitochondria in sickle pathology. Clinicaltrials.gov identifiers: #NCT00081523, #NCT03049475, #NCT00047996