Many essential biological molecules exist only in one of two possible mirror-image structures, either because they possess a chiral unit or through their structure (helices, for example, are intrinsically chiral), but so far the origin of this homochirality has not been unraveled. Here we demonstrate that the handedness of helical supramolecular aggregates formed by achiral molecules can be directed by applying rotational, gravitational and orienting forces during the self-assembly process. In this system, supramolecular chirality is determined by the relative directions of rotation and magnetically tuned effective gravity, but the magnetic orientation of the aggregates is also essential. Applying these external forces only during the nucleation step of the aggregation is sufficient to achieve chiral selection. This result shows that an almost instantaneous chiral perturbation can be transferred and amplified in growing supramolecular self-assemblies, and provides evidence that a falsely chiral influence is able to induce absolute enantioselection.

The ground- and excited-state properties of a series of meso-tetraphenylporphyrin (H2TPP) diacids, [H4TPP](X)2 (X = F, Cl, Br, I), ad hoc synthesized and characterized by 1H NMR, RLS, and UV−vis spectroscopies, have been studied theoretically using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT). Several conformations corresponding to different deformations of the porphyrin core have been explored. The nearly degenerate purely saddled (sad) and hybrid (saddled with a small superimposed ruffling:  sadruf) conformations are the preferred “gas phase” conformations. The type and degree of distortion of the macrocycle and the orientation of the phenyl rings compare well to X-ray data available for H2TPP diacids. Two electronic structure features are key to an understanding of the optical and photophysical properties. (1) Strong interaction of the π-system of the phenyls with the π-system of the porphyrin leads to an upshift of the G-a2u (G = Gouterman) orbital and, hence, to a significant splitting of the occupied pair of a2u/a1u Gouterman orbitals. The diminished G-a2u/G-eg* gap and the lifting of the a2u/a1u degeneracy explain the red shift of the Q and B bands and the hyperchromicity of the Q-band in the diacids. (2) The highest occupied orbitals of the diacids comprise the set of halide lone pair orbitals, which move from completely above the Gouterman orbitals (I- counterion) to below them (F-). The lowest halide to porphyrin charge-transfer (HPCT) transitions are therefore predicted at very low energy (to the red of the Q-band) for Cl-−I-, but with very low intensity. Weak measured absorptions to the red of the Q-band support these theoretical findings. Quenching of the S1 (Q) state via these low-lying singlet HPCT excited states accounts for the decrease of the fluorescence quantum yield and for the measured trend along the series.

The aggregation behavior of protoporphyrin IX in aqueous solution, as a function of pH and ionic strength, has been studied by means of UV/vis, fluorescence emission spectroscopy, and resonant light scattering (RLS) techniques. Our experimental results agree with previous literature assignments: (i) protoporphyrin IX is a monomer in the pH range 0-3, (ii) a dimer is present for pH > 8, and (iii) higher aggregates are present in the pH range 3-7. Addition of sodium chloride up to 0.3 M to a porphyrin solution at pH 12 gives a process resembling a phase transition, whereas it has little effect on acidic or neutral solutions. The apparent split Soret band observed in the intermediate pH range has been explained using a model in which dimers of porphyrins (with a slip angle R ) 38°or 52°, as derived from depolarized RLS measurements) are the basic units and they interact axially through π-π stacking and laterally by edge-to-edge hydrophobic contacts. The half neutralization of the carboxylic acid side chains is responsible for the occurrence of a network of intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which contribute to a better stabilization of the supramolecular assembly. Evaporation on a glass surface of solutions containing protoporphyrin IX aggregates from samples at intermediate pH leads to aggregates stable enough to be investigated for the first time through scanning electron (SEM) and scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM). These species evidence a prolate shape with an average size of 200-500 nm and a medium height of 60 nm, which is in agreement with the hydrodynamic radii as measured in solution by dynamic light scattering. On consideration of the amphiphilic character of protoporphyrin IX, these observations suggest the formation of multilamellar or onion-like vesicles. The analysis of the SNOM images points to the presence of regions in which the aggregation process resulted in a thin film covering the vesicles. An analysis of SEM experiments reveals also the contemporary presence of large regions in which the vesicles collapse in a continuum layered structure.

Samples containing J-aggregates formed by the porphyrin meso-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphine (H 2 TPPS 4 4-) were studied by a combination of elastic (ELS) and dynamic (DLS) light scattering techniques. Aggregation was fostered by lowering the pH and increasing the ionic strength (I; selected experimental conditions: (i) pH ) 0.7; (ii) pH ) 2.8, I ) 0.5 M; (iii) pH ) 0.7, I ) 2 M). The ELS data suggest the presence of self-similar structures, whose fractal dimension are d f ) 1.7, 2.13, and 2.09 (for case i, ii, and iii, respectively). The DLS experiments indicate the presence of large (1-1.5 µm)-, medium (100-200 nm)-, and small (3-6 nm)-sized aggregates. An aggregation number (N) ranging between 6 and 32 was calculated for the smaller components, whereas a range of 10 5 to 10 6 was found in the case of the large clusters. The aggregation kinetics were followed by the resonance light scattering technique. The average aggregation time and the growth models, as derived from the ELS experiments, are in agreement with the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory for aggregation of colloidal particles. The experimental findings point out the different ability of H + and Na + in driving the final mesoscopic structure.

Detailed kinetic investigations demonstrate the fundamental role of kinetic parameters in the expression and transmission of chirality in supramolecular systems. The rate of the aggregation process leading to the formation of J-aggregates strongly affects the size of these nanoassemblies and the chiral induction.

A series of new organometallic platinum(II) complexes containing terdentate polypyridine ligands has been prepared and characterized. Their absorption spectra in 4:1 (v/v) MeOH/EtOH fluid solution at room temperature and luminescence in the same matrix at 77 K have been investigated. The new species are [Pt(terpy)Ph]Cl (3, terpy = 2,2':6',2"-terpyridine, Ph = phenyl), [Pt(Ph-terpy)Cl]Cl (4, Ph-terpy = 4'-phenyl-2,2':6',2"-terpyridine), [Pt(Ph-terpy)Me]Cl (5), and [Pt(Ph-terpy)Ph]Cl (6). The results have been compared with those for [Pt(terpy)Cl]Cl (1) and [Pt(terpy)Me]Cl (2). NMR data evidence that all the complexes but 3 and 6 oligomerize in solution leading to stacked species. The absorption spectra are dominated by moderately intense metal-to-ligand charge-transfer (MLCT) bands in the visible region and by intense ligand-centered (LC) bands in the UV region. All the compounds are luminescent in a 4:1 (v/v) MeOH/EtOH rigid matrix at 77 K, exhibiting a structured emission within the range 460-600 nm. This feature is assigned to formally (3)LC excited states which receive substantial contribution from closely lying (3)MLCT levels. Complexes 1, 2, 4, and 5 also exhibit a relatively narrow and unstructured luminescence band within the range 680-800 nm, which dominates the luminescence spectrum on increasing concentration and exciting at longer wavelengths. The band is assigned to a dsigma(metal) --> pi(polypyridine) ((3)MMLCT) state, originating from metal-metal interactions occurring in head-to-tail dimers (or polymers). A third broad band is shown by 1 and 4 under all concentration conditions and by 2 and 5 only in concentrated solutions and is attributed to excimeric species originating from pi-pi interactions due to stacking between polypyridine ligands.

The presence of 10-13 M of chiral clusters of aromatic amino acids addresses aggregation of opposite-charged achiral porphyrin towards the formation of smart chiral assemblies. The latter supramolecular complexes are able to self-propagate and transfer their chiral information with a 100% yield. The chiral bias occurs through a correlated sequence of induction, memory, and amplification of chirality that strongly recalls possible prebiotic scenarios.

A structural change from fractal to nanorod J-aggregates of tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin has been obtained by acting on the intermolecular interaction potential. The size and shape of these self-assembled porphyrin clusters have been monitored under different experimental conditions, by means of polarized and depolarized dynamic light scattering and small and wide angle elastic light scattering. At sufficiently low porphyrin concentration and high ionic strength, the shielded repulsive potential seems to be responsible for the fractal structure of the aggregates. On the contrary, at low ionic strength (nonshielded potential) and high porphyrin concentration, these species self-assemble in a rodlike arrangement. The length of the so-formed rod-shaped aggregates decreases on increasing porphyrin concentration. Moreover, both fractals and rods display a structure-dependent optical activity induced by a chiral template.