Background Medication errors are a common occurrence during the conduct of anesthesia (one in 113-450 patients). Several factors contribute to medication errors in anesthesia, including experience of the anesthesia provider, severity of comorbidities, and type of procedure. The inexperience of anesthesia providers-in-training also leads to increased error rates. This prospective observational study repeats and extends previous work by Webster et al. and Llewellyn et al. examining the role of comorbidities, type of case, and level of provider experience on the incidence of medication errors. Methods After Institutional Review Board review and exemption from informed consent, medication error reporting forms were attached to every anesthetic record during a six-month period. All providers were asked to return the forms for every anesthetic, on a strictly voluntary and anonymous basis, and to record the occurrence of medication errors. If providers indicated that a medication error had occurred, additional details about the event were obtained anonymously. Results There were 8,777 (83%) responses obtained in a review of 10,574 case forms. A medication error was reported in 35 forms, with an additional 17 forms indicating a medication pre-error or near miss, resulting in 52 (0.49%) errors/pre-errors or a reported incidence of 1:203 anesthetics. Most case types were observed to have a statistically significant increase in reported medication errors. Reported errors by type of anesthesia provider were categorized into anesthesia provider-in-training group and the experienced provider group. The anesthesia providerin-training group reported a twofold increase in the rate of errors, with the most frequently reported errors being incorrect dose and substitution.
Field experiments from 1959–60 to 1963–4 showed that when blackarm resistant strains of Egyptian type cotton were sown around the beginning of August and adequately protected from fleabeetle, the resultant crop was of higher yield and considerably better average quality than that from the normal mid-to-late August sowings. Effective length, maturity ratio, standard fibre weight, bundle strength and lea-count × strength product were all improved. Sowing in early July, tested in one season only, gave rather better quality but lower yield than sowing in early August. Sowing in late August or in September depressed both yield and quality. The importance of direct climatic effects and of blackarm, fleabeetle, bollworm, other insect pests and wilt in controlling the choice of, and response to, sowing date is briefly discussed.Thanks are due to the Sudan Gezira Board for kindly supplying the results of the large-scale sowing date trials and for the grading of experimental cotton, to the Shirley Institute of Manchester for the fibre and spinning tests and to the Chief, Agricultural Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Sudan, for permission to publish this paper.
317EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Experiments to investigate the relationship between the sowing date of cotton and the incidence and effects of insect pests were carried out in the last 3 years of a 5-year series of experiments on the interactions of date of sowing with environmental and cultural factors. In each experiment the cotton was grown on ridges 12 m long with 80 cm between ridges and 50 cm between plant holes on the ridge. Seed, sown at a rate of about ten seeds per hole was dressed with Abavit against Xanthomonas malvacearum and, as is customary in the Gezira, the seedlings were thinned to give a final stand of three plants per hole. Irrigation was at approximately fortnightly intervals and other cultural practices also conformed with those standard for the Gezira Research Station (Crowther, 1948). In each of the three experiments on the interactions between sowing dates and insect pest numbers the cotton was of the commercial blackarm resistant variety XL 1 (Knight, 1954) and was given the standard fertilizer dressing of 76-3 lb nitrogen per acre supplied as urea. Regular counts of the numbers of jassids (Empoasca lybica de Berg), whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Genn.), and in the first experiment only, fleabeetle (Podogrica puncticolis Weise) were made on all plots. Jassid nymph and whitefly adult counts were made, according to a routine method, on five leaves per plant-two at the top, one in the middle and two at the bottom, on thirty plants per plot in the first experiment and twenty plants per plot in the second and third. Fleabeetle adult numbers were counted on thirty plant holes per plot and fleabeetle damage assessment recorded on thirty separate plant holes. In the first two experiments the dry weights of the different aerial parts of the plants were determined and the numbers of flower buds
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