This study provides further evidence for the impact of the aromas of plant essential oils on aspects of cognition and mood in healthy participants. One hundred and forty four volunteers were randomly assigned to conditions of Ylang-Ylang aroma, Peppermint aroma, or no aroma control. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Cognitive Drug Research computerised assessment battery, with mood scales completed before and after cognitive testing. The analysis of the data revealed significant differences between conditions on a number of the factors underpinning the tests that constitute the battery.Peppermint was found to enhance memory whereas Ylang-Ylang impaired it, and lengthened processing speed. In terms of subjective mood Peppermint increased alertness and Ylang-Ylang decreased it, but significantly increased calmness. These results provide support for the contention that the aromas of essential oils can produce significant and idiosyncratic effects on both subjective and objective assessments of aspects of human behaviour. They are discussed with reference to possible pharmacological and psychological modes of influence.2

This study investigated the potential for the aromas of the essential oils of Salvia species to affect cognition and mood in healthy adults. Research has demonstrated that orally administered Salvia officinalis and Salvia lavandulaefolia are capable of modulating cognition and mood. The active compounds in the herbal products might also be present in the aromas and so produce similar effects. In an independent groups design, three conditions, S. officinalis aroma, S. lavandulaefolia aroma and no aroma were employed. One hundred and thirty-five healthy volunteers acted as participants, with 45 in each condition. Cognitive performance was assessed via the Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) System. Bond-Lader mood scales measured the participants' mood on three dimensions before and after the cognitive tasks. Data analysis revealed that the S. officinalis aroma group performed significantly better than the control group on the quality of memory and secondary memory primary outcome factors from the test battery. The Alert mood measure displayed significant differences between both aromas and the control condition. These findings suggest that the aromas of essential oils of Salvia species reproduce some but not all of the effects found following oral herb administration, and that interesting dissociations occur between subjective and objective responses.

Research has previously demonstrated that aromas of both Salvia officinalis and Salvia lavandulaefolia are capable of modulating aspects of retrospective memory, attention and mood. This study is the first to report the potential for these aromas to enhance everyday prospective memory performance in healthy young adults. In an independent groups design, three conditions, Salvia officinalis aroma, Saliva lavandulaefolia aroma and no aroma were employed with 45 healthy volunteers in each condition. Prospective memory performance was assessed using the Prospective Remembering Video Procedure. Data analysis revealed that the Salvia officinalis aroma group performed significantly better than the control group on both event and action subscales of the prospective memory task. Saliva lavandulaefolia aroma only led to enhancement for the event measure when compared to controls. No differences were found between the aroma conditions. These findings offer support for those previously reported for the effects of the aromas of Salvia sp. on cognition and again demonstrate differential effects of the two aromas. The results are considered in terms of pharmacological mechanisms.

This study aimed to assess the acute effects of Peppermint and Chamomile herbal teas on cognitive performance and mood in healthy young adults. A single factor independent groups design was employed. One hundred and eighty undergraduate students volunteered to take part in the study for which they received course credit. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three treatments: Peppermint tea, Chamomile tea or hot water (Control). Mood scales were completed and participants then consumed their drink over a ten minute period and rested for twenty minutes. Cognitive performance was assessed using a tailored version of The Cognitive Drug Research (CDR) computerised assessment system. Post testing mood scales were then completed. Data were analysed using independent groups ANOVAs followed by Tukey post hoc comparisons. The analysis revealed that Peppermint tea significantly improved long term memory and speed of memory compared to both Chamomile and control treatments. Chamomile tea significantly slowed speed of attention and impaired working memory compared to the Peppermint treatment. Peppermint tea significantly increased subjective alertness compared to the Chamomile and control conditions. Chamomile significantly increased subjective calmness compared to the Peppermint treatment. The data show that acute consumption of Peppermint and Chamomile teas can impact on cognition and mood in healthy adults in contrasting directions. The enhancing and arousing effects of Peppermint and calming/sedative effects of Chamomile observed are in keeping with the purported properties of these herbs and suggest beneficial effects can be drawn from their use.

The inhalation of the aroma of Rosemary essential oil has been shown to enhance cognition in healthy adults. In this independent groups design study we exposed forty schoolchildren aged nine to eleven years to either Rosemary aroma or no aroma in a classroom setting where they completed standardised tests of working memory in fifteen minute procedure. Analysis of the data revealed that performance on the Immediate serial recall, Sentence span, and Counting span tasks were significantly better in the Rosemary aroma condition and possessed medium to large effect sizes. This is the first study to demonstrate such effects in children and suggests that the potential for enhancement is greater than in adults. The findings are discussed in terms of the potential for improving academic attainment through natural interventions and the possible mechanisms behind such effects.

ObjectivesThe aim was to develop a quantitative tool to measure perceived motivators and barriers to exercise amongst older adults in order to facilitate the development of bespoke interventions. MethodsFocus groups conducted with participants over the age of 65 informed the initial development of a 56-item Motivators and Barriers Questionnaire (MBQ). This was administered to a second sample of 72 sedentary and active older adults (65 to 90 years). ResultsPrinciple components analysis resulted in five factors defined as motivators to exercise and six factors representing barriers to exercise. A subsequent confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the model as assessed by RMSEA criteria. DiscussionThese findings suggest that the MBQ may help to identify an individual's 'profile' of motivators and barriers to exercise, and so inform personalized interventions that might successfully increase activity levels in adults over 65 years of age when compared to standardised approaches.

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Aims: Alcohol use and intoxication have been widely linked with the incidence of crime and antisocial behaviour. Reduced risk perception following alcohol consumption has been proposed as a possible reason for why people take part in such activities. This study aimed to identify if "intention to act" and "perception of risk" were similarly or differentially affected by alcohol consumed in a natural environment. Furthermore the relationship between amount consumed and degree of impact was investigated.Design: A single factor independent groups design was employed.Participants: 60 participants aged 18-23 were recruited.Measures: Participants indicated their likelihood of engagement in a range of acts, and stated how risky they thought each behaviour was via a questionnaire.Findings: Data analysis revealed a significant effect of alcohol group on reported likelihood of engagement such that likelihood increased with alcohol consumption. However, perceived risk was not subject to any effect, and increased intention to engage in a risky behaviour was not associated with a decreased perception of risk. Conclusions:These results may provide support for an anxiolysis-disinhibition model of alcohol induced risky behaviour. Certainly the data indicate that cognitive appraisal of the behaviours is not impaired or related to increased engagement.