The Koopman framework proposes a linear representation of finite dimensional nonlinear systems through a generally infinite dimensional globally linear representation. Originally, the Koopman formalism has been described for autonomous systems and the extension for actuated continuous-time systems with a linear input or a control affine form has only recently been addressed. However, such a derivation for discrete-time systems has not yet been developed. Thus, a particular Koopman form is generally assumed, predominantly a linear time invariant (LTI) model, as it facilitates the use of control techniques such as linear quadratic regulation and model predictive control. However, we show that this assumption is insufficient to capture the dynamics of the underlying nonlinear system. In the present paper, we systematically investigate and analytically derive lifted forms under inputs for a general class of nonlinear systems in both continuous and discrete time, using the fundamental theorem of calculus. We prove that the resulting lifted representations give linear state-space Koopman models where the input matrix becomes state (and input, for the discrete-time case)-dependent, hence it can be seen as a specially structured linear parameter-varying (LPV) description of the underlying system. We also provide error bounds on how much the parameter variation contributes and how well the system behaviour can be approximated by an LTI Koopman representation. The introduced theoretical insight greatly helps for performing proper model structure selection in system identification with Koopman models as well as making a proper choice for LTI or LPV techniques for the control of nonlinear systems through the Koopman approach.
The Koopman framework is a popular approach to transform a finite dimensional nonlinear system into an infinite dimensional, but linear model through a lifting process, using so-called observable functions. While there is an extensive theory on infinite dimensional representations in the operator sense, there are few constructive results on how to select the observables to realize them. When it comes to the possibility of finite Koopman representations, which are highly important form a practical point of view, there is no constructive theory. Hence, in practice, often a data-based method and ad-hoc choice of the observable functions is used. When truncating to a finite number of basis, there is also no clear indication of the introduced approximation error. In this paper, we propose a systematic method to compute the finite dimensional Koopman embedding of a specific class of polynomial nonlinear systems in continuous-time such that, the embedding, without approximation, can fully represent the dynamics of the nonlinear system.
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