Globally, a majority of people use plants as a primary source of healthcare and introduced plants are increasingly discussed as medicine. Protecting this resource for human health depends upon understanding which plants are used and how use patterns will change over time. The increasing use of introduced plants in local pharmacopoeia has been explained by their greater abundance or accessibility (availability hypothesis), their ability to cure medical conditions that are not treated by native plants (diversification hypothesis), or as a result of the introduced plants’ having many different simultaneous roles (versatility hypothesis). In order to describe the role of introduced plants in Ecuador, and to test these three hypotheses, we asked if introduced plants are over-represented in the Ecuadorian pharmacopoeia, and if their use as medicine is best explained by the introduced plants’ greater availability, different therapeutic applications, or greater number of use categories. Drawing on 44,585 plant-use entries, and the checklist of >17,000 species found in Ecuador, we used multi-model inference to test if more introduced plants are used as medicines in Ecuador than expected by chance, and examine the support for each of the three hypotheses above. We find nuanced support for all hypotheses. More introduced plants are utilized than would be expected by chance, which can be explained by geographic distribution, their strong association with cultivation, diversification (except with regard to introduced diseases), and therapeutic versatility, but not versatility of use categories. Introduced plants make a disproportionately high contribution to plant medicine in Ecuador. The strong association of cultivation with introduced medicinal plant use highlights the importance of the maintenance of human-mediated environments such as homegardens and agroforests for the provisioning of healthcare services.

<p><strong>Background:</strong> The rich Agaveae-based culture that exists in the Ecuadorian Andes is little known. Wild and cultivated rosettes of <em>Agave americana </em>and <em>Furcraea andina </em>coexist in arid Andean landscapes. <em>A. americana </em>is considered an introduced species to Ecuador.</p><p><strong>Questions:</strong> What are Agaveae use patterns and cultural importance in the Ecuadorian Andes? Is the ethnobotanical significance of <em>Agave</em> in Ecuador comparable to that in Mexico and other Andean countries?</p><p><strong>Species studied:</strong> <em>Agave americana, Furcraea andina</em></p><p><strong>Study site, dates:</strong> Ecuadorian Andes, 2016.</p><p><strong>Methods:</strong> Semi-structured interviews to Agaveae users (37) and a review of literature on ethnobotanical research conducted in Ecuador since the 18^th century.</p><p><strong>Results:</strong><em> A. americana </em>is more diversely and widely used than <em>F. andina </em>(124 <em>vs</em> 36 uses and 548 <em>vs</em> 140 use records, respectively).  The versatility of <em>A. americana</em> lies in its <em>mishki </em>(sap extracted from its heart) which has multiple medicinal, edible and ceremonial applications. We found significant variation of its use patterns throughout the region. The main use of <em>F. andina</em> as a source of fiber is disappearing. Most productive initiatives involve <em>A. americana</em> (92 %, n = 53).</p><p><strong>Conclusion:</strong> The importance of <em>A. americana </em>in the Ecuadorian Andes is comparable to that of agaves in Mexico, but not to its importance in other Andean countries where it is used sporadically. It<em> </em>can be considered a cultural keystone species. <em>F. andina</em> could have had that role in the past. <em>A. americana</em> versatility and availability through cultivation could explain why, irrespective of whether or not it is introduced, it remains an icon of identity and cultural cohesion in the Ecuadorian Andes.</p>

We analyze the relationship between palm species diversity and diversity of palm use in two areas (Amazonian Ecuador; Yucatan Peninsula) of equivalent size but with contrasting characteristics in palm species diversity and morphology, and in the phylogenetic composition of palm flora. The areas also differ in their cultural and socioeconomic contexts. Palm use diversity is significantly higher in the Ecuadorian Amazon than in the Yucatan Peninsula and the lower species diversity of palms in the Yucatan Peninsula is not matched by a more intensive use of the fewer species found there. The taxonomic composition of the palm flora is a poor predictor of extent of use and morphological characteristics of palm species affect usefulness only in the Ecuadorian Amazon. The Yucatecans' more limited reliance on forest products might explain the observed patterns. Ornamental palm use is an indicator of a general change in plant use patterns associated with tourism and macro-economic development in the Yucatan Peninsula. We find a positive relationship between ecosystem plant diversity and plant use diversity, but socioeconomic factors such as market integration strongly influence the use of local biodiversity. Palms represent a diverse and important natural resource that deserves further investigation to secure its sustainable management and conservation in the two studied sites, regardless of their degree of market integration.

ABSTRACT. We explored the relative importance of ecosystem diversity, socioeconomic, environmental, and geographical factors in determining the pattern and diversity of people's plant use in Ecuador, based on existing ethnobotanic investigations and a large database of georeferenced plant collections. For each of 40 communities, we determined the number of plants used and their distribution among 12 use categories. Plant species richness of the ecosystem surrounding each village was determined using herbarium data and rarefaction. Variation in socioeconomic, environmental, and geographical indicator variables at the community level was summarized using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Data were then analyzed using multiple regression and ordination analysis. We found a significant positive relationship between the number of plant species used and ecosystem species richness, whereas socioconomic, environmental, and geographical factors had no significance. However, ordination analysis did show a clear link among these factors and plant use patterns, i.e., the relative importance of different use categories. Study communities were divided into two groups: 1) Andean and coastal communities with better access to public services and markets categorized by high scores in these use classes: medicinal, social, food additives, environmental, apicolous (of economic interest in apiculture), and toxic to nonvertebrates; and 2) Amazonian remote communities with high scores for these use classes: food, fuel, materials, vertebrate and invertebrate food, and toxic to vertebrates. Our findings suggest that economic and social development affects plant use patterns in a selective way. Some traditional uses will persist despite increased infrastructure development and habitat disturbance, whereas others that reflect subsistence strategies dependent on conserved natural habitats may soon disappear. The study incorporates more than 20 years of ethnobotanical research effort and a combined herbarium specimen database with more than 250,000 georeferenced records. As such, it provides a first example of how a biodiversity informatics approach can be used to take ethnobotanical analysis to new and larger scales.

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) derived from palms and other plants are economically and culturally important to a large part of the more than 240 million people who live in the forest areas of developing countries. The sustainable extraction of NTFPs is increasingly regarded as an important part for forest conservation strategies. This paper provides an overview and comparison of existing statutory legislation with respect to the extraction and trade of NTFPs in four Andean countries and discusses its adequacy with respect to ensuring legal and sustainable extraction and trade of NTFPs. The related legal framework surrounding indigenous peoples' rights, traditional knowledge and access to genetic resources is also reviewed. Forest laws are primarily concerned with the regulation of timber. Hence, legal and administrative frameworks to regulate the extraction and trade of NTFPs are fragmented and ambiguous. By providing an overview over the existing legal situation, this paper seeks to inform and open debates about ways to improve the regulation of the extraction and trade of NTFPs in the region.Resumen Los productos forestales no maderables (PFNM) derivados de palmas y otras plantas son económica y culturalmente importantes para una gran parte de los más de 240 millones de personas que viven en áreas boscosas de los países en desarrollo. La extracción sostenible de los PFNM se considera cada vez más como una pieza importante en las estrategias de conservación forestal. Este artículo revisa y compara las normas legales relativas a la extracción y comercialización de PFNM en cuatro países andinos y discute su pertinencia para asegurar su extracción y comercialización legal y sustentable. El marco legal relacionado sobre derechos de pueblos indígenas, conocimiento tradicional y acceso a recursos genéticos también se revisa. Las normas forestales conciernen principalmente a regulaciones para madera, por lo que los marcos legales y administrativos para regular la extracción y comercialización de PFNM son fragmentados y ambiguos. Al proveer una revisión de la situación legal actual, este artículo busca informar y abrir debates sobre maneras de mejorar la regulación sobre la extracción y comercialización de PFNM en la región.