Fire shapes the distribution of savanna and forest through complex interactions involving climate, resources and species traits. Based on data from central Brazil, we propose that these interactions are governed by two critical thresholds. The fire-resistance threshold is reached when individual trees have accumulated sufficient bark to avoid stem death, whereas the fire-suppression threshold is reached when an ecosystem has sufficient canopy cover to suppress fire by excluding grasses. Surpassing either threshold is dependent upon long fire-free intervals, which are rare in mesic savanna. On high-resource sites, the thresholds are reached quickly, increasing the probability that savanna switches to forest, whereas low-resource sites are likely to remain as savanna even if fire is infrequent. Species traits influence both thresholds; saplings of savanna trees accumulate bark thickness more quickly than forest trees, and are more likely to become fire resistant during fire-free intervals. Forest trees accumulate leaf area more rapidly than savanna trees, thereby accelerating the transition to forest. Thus, multiple factors interact with fire to determine the distribution of savanna and forest by influencing the time needed to reach these thresholds. Future work should decipher multiple environmental controls over the rates of tree growth and canopy closure in savanna.
Studies have shown that pyrolysis method and temperature are the key factors influencing biochar chemical and physical properties; however, information on the nature of biochar feedstocks is more accessible to consumers, making feedstock a better measure for selecting biochars. This study characterizes physical and chemical properties of commercially available biochars and investigates trends in biochar properties related to feedstock material to develop guidelines for biochar use. Twelve biochars were analyzed for physical and chemical properties. Compiled data from this study and from the literature (n = 85) were used to investigate trends in biochar characteristics related to feedstock. Analysis of compiled data reveals that despite clear differences in biochar properties from feedstocks of algae, grass, manure, nutshells, pomace, and wood (hard- and softwoods), characteristic generalizations can be made. Feedstock was a better predictor of biochar ash content and C/N ratio, but surface area was also temperature dependent for wood-derived biochar. Significant differences in ash content (grass and manure > wood) and C/N ratio (softwoods > grass and manure) enabled the first presentation of guidelines for biochar use based on feedstock material.
Aim Rising atmospheric CO 2 and climate warming have induced changes in tree growth and intrinsic water‐use efficiency (iWUE) world‐wide, but the long‐term impact of such changes on terrestrial productivity remains unknown. Based on a synthesis of the literature, here we investigate the net impact of recent atmospheric changes across forest biomes. Location A range of sites covering major forest biomes. Methods We use dendrochronological and isotopic records to provide an integrated analysis of changes in growth and iWUE, evaluating the impacts of atmospheric changes in tree growth. In our analysis, positive relationships between changes in growth and iWUE reflect CO 2 stimulation, while neutral effects yield inflections in growth curves (plotted against iWUE), and negative relationships indicate the prevalence of stressors. To estimate net effects (since 1960) and compare responses across biomes, we use a response contrast (RC) index, based on the ratio between cumulative changes in growth and iWUE. Results In 37 recently published case studies changes in iWUE were consistently positive, increasing by between 10 and 60%, but shifts in growth varied widely within and among forest biomes. Positive RC values were observed in high latitudes (> 40°N), while progressively lower (always negative) responses were observed toward lower latitudes. Growth rates declined between 15 and 55% in tropical forests. In subtropical sites growth declined by between 7 and 10%, while mixed responses occurred in other regions. Main conclusions Over the past 50 years, tree growth decline has prevailed despite increasing atmospheric CO 2. The impact of atmospheric changes on forest productivity is latitude dependent (R 2 = 0.9, P < 0.05), but our results suggest that, globally, CO 2 stimulation of mature trees will not counteract emissions. In most surveyed case studies warming‐induced stress was evoked to explain growth decline, but other factors, such as nutrient limitation, could have overridden the potential benefits of rising CO 2 levels.
Upland tropical forests have expanded and contracted in response to past climates, but it is not clear whether similar dynamics were exhibited by gallery (riparian) forests within savanna biomes. Because such forests generally have access to ample water, their extent may be buffered against changing climates. We tested the long-term stability of gallery forest boundaries by characterizing the border between gallery forests and savannas and tracing the presence of gallery forest through isotopic analysis of organic carbon in the soil profile. We measured leaf area index, grass vs. shrub or tree coverage, the organic carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen and calcium concentrations in soils and the carbon isotope ratios of soil organic matter in two transitions spanning gallery forests and savanna in a Cerrado ecosystem. Gallery forests without grasses typically show a greater leaf area index in contrast to savannas, which show dense grass coverage. Soils of gallery forests have significantly greater concentrations of organic carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen and calcium than those of savannas. Soil organic carbon of savannas is significantly more enriched in 13 C compared with that of gallery forests. This difference in enrichment is in part caused by the presence of C 4 grasses in savanna ecosystem and its absence in gallery forests. Using the 13 C abundance as a signature for savanna and gallery forest ecosystems in 1 m soil cores, we show that the borders of gallery forests have expanded into the savanna and that this process initiated at least 3000-4000 BP based on 14 C analysis. Gallery forests, however, may be still expanding as we found more recent transitions according to 14 C activity measurements. We discuss the possible mechanisms of gallery forest expansion and the means by which nutrients required for the expansion of gallery forest might accumulate.
BackgroundThe synergetic effects of recent rising atmospheric CO2 and temperature are expected to favor tree growth in boreal and temperate forests. However, recent dendrochronological studies have shown site-specific unprecedented growth enhancements or declines. The question of whether either of these trends is caused by changes in the atmosphere remains unanswered because dendrochronology alone has not been able to clarify the physiological basis of such trends.Methodology/Principal FindingsHere we combined standard dendrochronological methods with carbon isotopic analysis to investigate whether atmospheric changes enhanced water use efficiency (WUE) and growth of two deciduous and two coniferous tree species along a 9° latitudinal gradient across temperate and boreal forests in Ontario, Canada. Our results show that although trees have had around 53% increases in WUE over the past century, growth decline (measured as a decrease in basal area increment – BAI) has been the prevalent response in recent decades irrespective of species identity and latitude. Since the 1950s, tree BAI was predominantly negatively correlated with warmer climates and/or positively correlated with precipitation, suggesting warming induced water stress. However, where growth declines were not explained by climate, WUE and BAI were linearly and positively correlated, showing that declines are not always attributable to warming induced stress and additional stressors may exist.ConclusionsOur results show an unexpected widespread tree growth decline in temperate and boreal forests due to warming induced stress but are also suggestive of additional stressors. Rising atmospheric CO2 levels during the past century resulted in consistent increases in water use efficiency, but this did not prevent growth decline. These findings challenge current predictions of increasing terrestrial carbon stocks under climate change scenarios.
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