Background Antivirals are needed to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which is caused by SARS-CoV-2. The clinically-proven protease inhibitor Camostat mesylate inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection by blocking the virus-activating host cell protease TMPRSS2. However, antiviral activity of Camostat mesylate metabolites and potential viral resistance have not been analyzed. Moreover, antiviral activity of Camostat mesylate in human lung tissue remains to be demonstrated. Methods We used recombinant TMPRSS2, reporter particles bearing the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 or authentic SARS-CoV-2 to assess inhibition of TMPRSS2 and viral entry, respectively, by Camostat mesylate and its metabolite GBPA. Findings We show that several TMPRSS2-related proteases activate SARS-CoV-2 and that two, TMPRSS11D and TMPRSS13, are robustly expressed in the upper respiratory tract. However, entry mediated by these proteases was blocked by Camostat mesylate. The Camostat metabolite GBPA inhibited recombinant TMPRSS2 with reduced efficiency as compared to Camostat mesylate. In contrast, both inhibitors exhibited similar antiviral activity and this correlated with the rapid conversion of Camostat mesylate into GBPA in the presence of serum. Finally, Camostat mesylate and GBPA blocked SARS-CoV-2 spread in human lung tissue ex vivo and the related protease inhibitor Nafamostat mesylate exerted augmented antiviral activity. Interpretation Our results suggest that SARS-CoV-2 can use TMPRSS2 and closely related proteases for spread in the upper respiratory tract and that spread in the human lung can be blocked by Camostat mesylate and its metabolite GBPA. Funding NIH, Damon Runyon Foundation, ACS, NYCT, DFG, EU, Berlin Mathematics center MATH+, BMBF, Lower Saxony, Lundbeck Foundation, Novo Nordisk Foundation.

The authors unravel the molecular action principle of nafamostat and camostat, two potential COVID-19 drugs targeting the human protein TMPRSS2.

Antiviral therapy is urgently needed to combat the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The protease inhibitor camostat mesylate inhibits SARS-CoV-2 infection of lung cells by blocking the virus-activating host cell protease TMPRSS2. Camostat mesylate has been approved for treatment of pancreatitis in Japan and is currently being repurposed for COVID-19 treatment. However, potential mechanisms of viral resistance as well as camostat mesylate metabolization and antiviral activity of metabolites are unclear. Here, we show that SARS-CoV-2 can employ TMPRSS2-related host cell proteases for activation and that several of them are expressed in viral target cells. However, entry mediated by these proteases was blocked by camostat mesylate. The camostat metabolite GBPA inhibited the activity of recombinant TMPRSS2 with reduced efficiency as compared to camostat mesylate and was rapidly generated in the presence of serum. Importantly, the infection experiments in which camostat mesylate was identified as a SARS-CoV-2 inhibitor involved preincubation of target cells with camostat mesylate in the presence of serum for 2 h and thus allowed conversion of camostat mesylate into GBPA. Indeed, when the antiviral activities of GBPA and camostat mesylate were compared in this setting, no major differences were identified. Our results indicate that use of TMPRSS2-related proteases for entry into target cells will not render SARS-CoV-2 camostat mesylate resistant. Moreover, the present and previous findings suggest that the peak concentrations of GBPA established after the clinically approved camostat mesylate dose (600 mg/day) will result in antiviral activity.

Because of the small size and large surface area of thiolate-protected Au nanoclusters (NCs), the protecting ligands are expected to play a substantial role in modulating the structure and properties, particularly in the solution phase. However, little is known on how thiolate ligands explicitly modulate the structural properties of the NCs at atomic level, even though this information is critical for predicting the performance of Au NCs in application settings including as a catalyst interacting with small molecules and as a sensor interacting with biomolecular systems. Here, we report a combined experimental and theoretical study, using synchrotron X-ray spectroscopy and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics simulations, that investigates how the protecting ligands impact the structure and properties of small Au18(SR)14 NCs. Two representative ligand types, smaller aliphatic cyclohexanethiolate and larger hydrophilic glutathione, are selected, and their structures are followed experimentally in both solid and solution phases. It was found that cyclohexanethiolate ligands are significantly perturbed by toluene solvent molecules, resulting in structural changes that cause disorder on the surface of Au18(SR)14 NCs. In particular, large surface cavities in the ligand shell are created by interactions between toluene and cyclohexanethiolate. The appearance of these small molecule-accessible sites on the  NC surface demonstrates the ability of Au NCs to act as a catalyst for organic phase reactions. In contrast, glutathione ligands encapsulate the Au NC core via intermolecular interactions, minimizing structural changes caused by interactions with water molecules. The much better protection from glutathione ligands imparts a rigidified surface and ligand structure, making the NCs desirable for biomedical applications due to the high stability and also offering a structural-based explanation for the enhanced photoluminescence often reported for glutathione-protected Au NCs.

The transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS2 is indispensable for S protein priming of the MERS, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV2 coronaviruses, a process that is necessary for entry of the virus into host cells. Therefore, inhibiting TMPRSS2 holds promise as an approach toward preventing transmission of coronaviruses. Herein, we developed an in vitro system to measure TMPRSS2 activity and tested the inhibition of TMPRSS2 by several synthetic and natural protease inhibitors. Camostat mesylate and bromhexine hydrochloride (BHH) inhibited TMPRSS2 proteolytic function. In addition, we identified the small molecule 4-(2-aminomethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride (AEBSF) and the human, anti-inflammatory protein alpha 1 antitrypsin (A1AT) as inhibitors of TMPRSS2. AEBSF and A1AT inhibited TMPRSS2 activity in a dose-dependent manner. AEBSF and A1AT inhibited TMPRSS2 in the same range of concentrations (100-0.1 μM). We suggest that treatment with these inhibitors, particularly A1AT, which is an FDA-approved drug, might be effective in limiting SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV2 transmissibility and as a COVID-19 treatment.

The essential biological roles played by glycosidases, coupled to the diverse therapeutic benefits of pharmacologically targeting these enzymes, provide considerable motivation for the development of new inhibitor classes. Cyclophellitol epoxides and aziridines are recently established covalent glycosidase inactivators. Inspired by the application of cyclic sulfates as electrophilic equivalents of epoxides in organic synthesis, we sought to test whether cyclophellitol cyclosulfates would similarly act as irreversible glycosidase inhibitors. Here we present the synthesis, conformational analysis, and application of novel 1,6-cyclophellitol cyclosulfates. We show that 1,6-epi-cyclophellitol cyclosulfate (α-cyclosulfate) is a rapidly reacting α-glucosidase inhibitor whose 4C1 chair conformation matches that adopted by α-glucosidase Michaelis complexes. The 1,6-cyclophellitol cyclosulfate (β-cyclosulfate) reacts more slowly, likely reflecting its conformational restrictions. Selective glycosidase inhibitors are invaluable as mechanistic probes and therapeutic agents, and we propose cyclophellitol cyclosulfates as a valuable new class of carbohydrate mimetics for application in these directions.

Plant polysaccharides represent a virtually unlimited feedstock for the generation of biofuels and other commodities. However, the extraordinary recalcitrance of plant polysaccharides toward breakdown necessitates a continued search for enzymes that degrade these materials efficiently under defined conditions. Activity-based protein profiling provides a route for the functional discovery of such enzymes in complex mixtures and under industrially relevant conditions. Here, we show the detection and identification of β-xylosidases and endo -β-1,4-xylanases in the secretomes of Aspergillus niger , by the use of chemical probes inspired by the β-glucosidase inhibitor cyclophellitol. Furthermore, we demonstrate the use of these activity-based probes (ABPs) to assess enzyme–substrate specificities, thermal stabilities, and other biotechnologically relevant parameters. Our experiments highlight the utility of ABPs as promising tools for the discovery of relevant enzymes useful for biomass breakdown.

Background: Host proteases have been suggested to be crucial for dissemination of MERS, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 coronaviruses, but the relative contribution of membrane versus intracellular proteases remains controversial. Transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is regarded as one of the main proteases implicated in the coronavirus S protein priming, an important step for binding of the S protein to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor before cell entry.  Methods: We developed a cell-based assay to identify TMPRSS2 inhibitors. Inhibitory activity was established in SARS-CoV-2 viral load systems. Results: We identified the human extracellular serine protease inhibitor (serpin) alpha 1 antitrypsin (A1AT) as a novel TMPRSS2 inhibitor. Structural modeling revealed that A1AT docked to an extracellular domain of TMPRSS2 in a conformation that is suitable for catalysis, resembling similar serine protease inhibitor complexes. Inhibitory activity of A1AT was established in a SARS-CoV-2 viral load system. Notably, plasma A1AT levels were associated with COVID-19 disease severity.  Conclusions: Our data support the key role of extracellular serine proteases in SARS CoV-2 infections and indicate that treatment with serpins, particularly the FDA-approved drug A1AT, may be effective in limiting SARS-CoV-2 dissemination by affecting the surface of the host cells.