The acute-phase (AP) serum amyloid A proteins (A-SAA) are multifunctional apolipoproteins which are involved in cholesterol transport and metabolism, and in modulating numerous immunological responses during inflammation and the AP response to infection, trauma or stress. During the AP response the hepatic biosynthesis of A-SAA is up-regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, and circulating concentrations can increase by up to 1000-fold. Chronically elevated A-SAA concentrations are a prerequisite for the pathogenesis of secondary amyloidosis, a progressive and fatal disease characterized by the deposition in major organs of insoluble plaques composed principally of proteolytically cleaved A-SAA, and may also contribute to physiological processes that lead to atherosclerosis. There is therefore a requirement for both positive and negative control mechanisms that permit the rapid induction of A-SAA expression until it has fulfilled its host-protective function(s) and subsequently ensure that its expression can be rapidly returned to baseline. These mechanisms include modulation of promoter activity involving, for example, the inducer nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and its inhibitor IkappaB, up-regulatory transcription factors of the nuclear factor for interleukin-6 (NF-IL6) family and transcriptional repressors such as yin and yang 1 (YY1). Post-transcriptional modulation involving changes in mRNA stability and translation efficiency permit further up- and down-regulatory control of A-SAA protein synthesis to be achieved. In the later stages of the AP response, A-SAA expression is effectively down-regulated via the increased production of cytokine antagonists such as the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) and of soluble cytokine receptors, resulting in less signal transduction driven by pro-inflammatory cytokines.

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Interleukin-36 (IL-36) is the common name for the three IL-1 family members IL-36α, IL-36β and IL-36γ, formerly known as IL-1F6, IL-1F8 and IL-1F9, respectively. IL-36 appears to have pro-inflammatory activities; however, the physiological function of these cytokines remains unknown. Expression of IL-36 by keratinocytes implies its possible involvement in innate immune responses in the skin. We observed that, of the three IL-36 isoforms, human keratinocytes express high levels of IL-36γ. IL-36γ mRNA expression was dramatically induced by the Toll-like receptor ligands poly(I:C) and flagellin. Surprisingly, the IL-36γ protein was released by cells treated with poly(I:C) but remained intracellular in cells treated with flagellin only. Poly(I:C), but not flagellin, induced cell death and caspase-3/7 activation. Inhibition of caspase-3/7 and caspase-1 blocked extracellular release of IL-36γ from poly(I:C) treated cells. Furthermore, caspase-1 inhibition prevented poly(I:C)-induced caspase-3/7 activation. Interestingly, transcription of the gene IL36G was dependent upon caspase-1, but not caspase-3/7, activation. This demonstrates that the pathways leading to IL36G transcription and caspase-3/7 activation branch after caspase-1. This divergence of the pathways allows the cells to enter a state of de novo protein synthesis before committing to pyroptosis. Overall our observations suggest that IL-36γ may be an alarmin that signals the cause, e.g. viral infection, of cell death.

Toll-like receptors and the IL-1R are part of the innate immune response aimed at mobilizing defense mechanisms in response to infections or injury. These receptors can initiate common intracellular signaling cascades. One intermediate component in these signaling cascades is Pellino, which was first identified in Drosophila and shown to interact with IL-1R-associated kinase. Two homologues, Pellino1 and Pellino2, have been identified in mammals. A novel member of the Pellino protein family has been identified and named Pellino3. Pellino3 shares 84 and 85% amino acid identity with Pellino1 and Pellino2, respectively. Two alternatively spliced Pellino3 mRNAs, Pellino3a and Pellino3b, are widely expressed. Pellino3 physically interacts with IL-1R-associated kinase-1, TNF receptor-associated factor-6, TGF-β-activated kinase-1, and NF-κB-inducing kinase in an IL-1-dependent manner, suggesting that it plays a role as a scaffolding protein. In reporter assays Pellino3 leads to activation of c-Jun and Elk-1, but not NF-κB. Pellino3 also leads to activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase. These data suggest that Pellino3 plays an important role in the innate immune response.

Itch is a major indicator of psoriasis, but the underlying mechanisms behind this symptom are largely unknown. To investigate the neuronal mechanisms of psoriatic itch, we tested whether mice subjected to the imiquimod-induced psoriasis model exhibit itch-associated behaviors. Mice received daily topical applications of imiquimod to the rostral back skin for seven days. Imiquimod-treated mice exhibited a significant increase in spontaneous scratching behavior directed to the treated area as well as touch-evoked scratching (alloknesis). To characterize this model, we measured the mRNA expression levels of pruritogens and itch-relevant receptors/channels using real-time RT-PCR. The mRNA expression of MrgprA3, MrgprC11, and MrgprD decreased gradually over time in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells. There was no significant change in the mRNA expression of TRPV1 or TRPA1 in DRG cells. TRPV4 mRNA expression was transiently increased in the DRG cells, while TRPM8 mRNA was significantly decreased. The mRNA expression levels of histidine decarboxylase and tryptophan hydroxylase 1, as well as the intensity of histamine and serotonin immunoreactivity, were transiently increased in the skin on day 2, returning to baseline by day 7. Histamine H1 receptor (H1R) antagonists, chlorpheniramine and olopatadine, significantly inhibited spontaneous scratching on day 2, but not day 7. Neither chlorpheniramine nor olopatadine affected alloknesis on day 2 or day 7. These results may reflect the limited antipruritic effects of H1R antagonists on human psoriasis. The imiquimod-induced psoriasis model appears to be useful for the investigation of itch and its sensitization in psoriasis.