We quantify the heavily oil-dominated WEF nexus in three Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia) across spatial scales and over time, using available empirical data at the national level, and explore the exposure to nexus stresses (groundwater depletion) in other countries through virtual water trade. At the domestic scale, WEF trade-offs are fairly limited; while all sectors require considerable amounts of energy, the requirements for water and food production are modest compared to other uses. At the international scale, revenues from oil exports in the GCC allow the region to compensate for low food production and scarce water availability. This dependency is dynamic over time, increasing when oil prices are low and food prices are high. We show how reducing domestic trade-offs can lead to higher exposure internationally, with rice imports originating in regions where groundwater is being depleted. However, Saudi Arabia’s increased wheat imports, after reversing its food self-sufficiency policy, have had limited effects on groundwater depletion elsewhere. Climate change mitigation links the WEF nexus to the global scale. While there is great uncertainty about future international climate policy, our analysis illustrates how implementation of measures to account for the social costs of carbon would reduce the oil and gas revenues available to import food and desalinate water in the GCC.
<p>This study examines the effects of (extreme) weather conditions on the willingness to purchase and on actual purchase of land ownership rights in Uganda. We use three waves of the Uganda National Panel Survey in combination with high-resolution gridded precipitation and temperature data, with which we calculate a drought index as weather shock measure, the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI). Using a household fixed-effects approach, we exploit spatial and temporal variation in SPEI values to causally identify the effect of extreme weather events on the willingness to acquire ownership to land and actual changes in the land ownership structure of households over time. Results show that dry conditions dampen households&#8217; intentions to purchase land ownership rights, while wet conditions positively affect such intentions. In addition, wet conditions substantially increase the price households are willing to pay to purchase land ownership. The effects are robust to different specifications, persistent over time and translate into actual changes of land ownership ratios with a two-year time lag. The findings suggest that more favourable climatic conditions for agriculture increase interest in land ownership, which has implications for land formalisation programmes and climate change adaptation efforts.</p>
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