Background and aimsLoot boxes are a common feature in video games where players win, buy or are gifted a virtual box or other container that is unwrapped to reveal virtual items of value, such as skins, weapons, in-game currency or special abilities. The current study aimed to relate the use of loot boxes to gambling problems and harm.MethodsAn online survey was conducted with 1,954 adolescents and young adults from NSW Australia, 59.9% female (aged 12–24), recruited by online panel aggregator, Qualtrics.ResultsBuying and selling loot boxes was associated with higher 12-month gambling frequency and gambling problems in young adults, aged 18–24 (Problem Gambling Severity Index). Young adults who bought loot boxes additionally had more gambling-related harms (Short Gambling Harms Screen). Young women, aged 18–24, who opened, bought and/or sold loot boxes spent more money in the last 12 months on gambling. In adolescents, aged 12–17, buying loot boxes was similarly associated with gambling problems (DSM-IV-MR-J). Furthermore, adolescent girls who bought and/or sold loot boxes viewed gambling more positively than other girls (Attitudes Towards Gambling Scale). There was no evidence, however, that longer-term experience in opening or purchasing loot boxes, a differentiating feature of the survey, is associated with current gambling problems.Discussion and conclusionsThis study suggests that loot boxes may be attractive to people who are already predisposed to engage in other gambling, and females who use loot boxes may have unique vulnerabilities to gambling problems that could be explored in future research.

Differential patterns of physiological arousal to win and loss events during gambling is central to psychological conceptualizations of gambling behaviors but is poorly researched. We recorded heart rate (HR) and skin conductance responses (SCRs) to wins and losses while 23 healthy participants played for small incentives on a simulated electronic gambling task. Wins produced large SCRs whereas losses did not, and large wins produced larger SCRs than small wins. Electrodermal measures also correlated with reward responsiveness on a personality measure and with ratings of excitement during gambling. HR evidenced a slight deceleration before event outcomes, and the rebound HR was larger after wins than after losses. The study demonstrates that physiological changes to gambling events can be reliably captured, and that these changes are sensitive to differential outcomes. These findings establish a foundation for future research in field settings.

Originally, the feedback related negativity (FRN) event-related potential (ERP) component was considered to be a robust neural correlate of non-reward/punishment processing, with greater negative deflections observed following unfavourable outcomes. More recently, it has been suggested that this component is better conceptualised as a positive deflection following rewarding outcomes. The current study sought to elucidate the nature of the FRN, as well as another component associated with incentive-value processing, the P3b, through application of a spatiotemporal principal components analysis (PCA). Seventeen healthy controls played a computer electronic gaming machine (EGM) task and received feedback on credits won or lost on each trial, and ERPs were recorded. The distribution of reward/non-reward outcomes closely matched that of a real EGM, with frequent losses, and infrequent wins and near-wins. The PCA revealed that feedback elicited both a frontally maximal negative deflection to losses, and a positive deflection to wins (which was also sensitive to reward magnitude), implying that the neural generator/s of the FRN are differentially activated following these outcomes. As expected, greater P3b amplitudes were found for wins compared to losses. Interestingly, near-wins elicited significantly smaller FRN amplitudes than losses (with no differences in P3b amplitude), and may contribute to the maintenance of gambling behaviours on EGMs. The results of the current study are integrated into a response profile of healthy controls to outcomes of varying incentive value. This may provide a foundation for the future examination of individuals who exhibit abnormalities in reward/ punishment processing, such as problem gamblers. The PCA revealed that feedback elicited both a frontally maximal negative deflection to losses, and a positive deflection to wins (which was also sensitive to reward magnitude), implying that the neural generator/s of the FRN are differentially activated following these outcomes. As expected, greater P3b amplitudes were found for wins compared to losses.Interestingly, near-wins elicited significantly smaller FRN amplitudes than losses (with no differences in P3b amplitude), and may contribute to the maintenance of gambling behaviours on EGMs. The results of the current study are integrated into a response profile of healthy controls to outcomes of varying incentive value. This may provide a foundation for the future examination of individuals who exhibit abnormalities in reward/punishment processing, such as problem gamblers.

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Background and aims The broadcast of wagering advertisements during televised sports matches has been associated with various adverse outcomes. In order to counter these effects, legislative bodies require wagering operators to include responsible gambling messages in their advertisements; however, the effectiveness of these messages is unclear. This study sought to examine the extent to which responsible gambling messages are looked at, in the wider context of gambling advertisements. Methods Forty-nine regular sports bettors and 10 non-gamblers viewed a series of sports betting advertisements, while an eye-tracker recorded the number of fixations placed on responsible gambling messages, as well as other text-based wagering content. Results Responsible gambling messages were, generally, presented in a non-conspicuous manner. Eye-tracking data revealed that significantly fewer fixations were placed on responsible gambling messages, compared to wagering information (p < .001); however, this effect did not differ according to level of gambling risk (p = .169). The number of fixations placed on the different types of responsible gambling messages was found to vary, based on gambling risk (p = .006), as well as, what appears to be, the physical characteristics of these messages. Discussion Very few fixations were placed on, or near, responsible gambling messages, compared to other wagering information, meaning that, in their current form, they are unlikely to be effective in protecting against gambling harm. Preliminary evidence shows that presenting messages on a high-contrast/block-color background increases the number of fixations on these. Conclusion Further research is needed to identify ways of increasing the effectiveness of responsible gambling initiatives in the sports betting context.