MICA is a major histocompatibility complex-like protein that undergoes a structural transition from disorder to order upon binding its immunoreceptor, NKG2D. We redesigned the disordered region of MICA with RosettaDesign to increase NKG2D binding. Mutations that stabilize this region were expected to increase association kinetics without changing dissociation kinetics, increase affinity of interaction, and reduce entropy loss upon binding. MICA mutants were stable in solution, and they were amenable to surface plasmon resonance evaluation of NKG2D binding kinetics and thermodynamics. Several MICA mutants bound NKG2D with enhanced affinity, kinetic changes were primarily observed during association, and thermodynamic changes in entropy were as expected. However, none of the 15 combinations of mutations predicted to stabilize the receptor-bound MICA conformation enhanced NKG2D affinity, whereas all 10 mutants predicted to be destabilized bound NKG2D with increased on-rates. Five of these had affinities enhanced by 0.9 -1.8 kcal/mol over wild type by one to three non-contacting substitutions. Therefore, in this case, mutations designed to mildly destabilize a protein enhanced association and affinity.NKG2D-ligand interactions play a central role in inducible NK cell and ␥␦ T cell activation, initiating cytotoxic responses to transformation and infection (1-3). All known NKG2D-binding proteins use a major histocompatibility complex platform-like tertiary structure as a scaffold to contact NKG2D, including two binding surface ␣ helices (␣1 and ␣2). In the crystal structure of the NKG2D ligand MICA, electron density was absent for a central portion of the ␣2 helix (residues 152-161), indicating that the helix in that region was disordered into a flexible loop (4). When bound to NKG2D, the residues were ordered beneath the receptor (5). This type of transition from disorder to order upon binding is similar to other immunoreceptor-ligand combinations (6 -9). The thermodynamics of four NKG2D-ligand interactions were compared and found to be driven by both enthalpy and entropy, distinct from the generally enthalpy-driven, entropy-hindered T-cell receptor-major histocompatibility complex interactions (10).The structural characterization of NKG2D-ligand interfaces allows computational optimization of the interactions. Algorithms for computational design of proteins have already been used for energetic dissection of NKG2D-ligand interactions, confirmed by experiment (11). Different rational design techniques applied to LFA-1 with ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1) (12) and a mature antibody-antigen complex (13), for example, have engineered interfaces toward increased affinities.We applied rational design to the MICA-NKG2D interface by attempting to stabilize MICA in its receptor-bound conformation. Loss of configurational freedom for the MICA ␣2 loop should pose an entropic barrier to MICA-NKG2D association, assuming protein entropy dominates. Using RosettaDesign, we used a two-stage design strategy to stabilize thi...
Objectives To evaluate the effect of selected bioactive compounds from cocoa shell and its aqueous extract on the activation of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) signaling in hepatocytes and the resulting modulation of lipid and glucose metabolism, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial function. Methods The bioactive compounds from cocoa shells were extracted using water and characterized by UPLC-MS/MS. An in vitro model of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease was used: HepG2 cells were co-treated with either pure theobromine (TH), protocatechuic acid (PCA), procyanidin B2 (PB2), epicatechin (EPI), catechin (CAT) (10–50 µmol L−1), or the aqueous extract from cocoa shells (CAE, 20–100 µg mL−1) in the presence or absence of palmitic acid (PA, 500 µmol L−1). FGF21 receptor interaction with cocoa shell phytochemical was evaluated in silico. Biomarkers of cell metabolism were assessed 24 h after the co-treatment in cell supernatants and lysates using chemical, biochemical, and immunochemical techniques. Results Phytochemicals from cocoa shell were able to interact in silico with FGF21 receptor (biding energies from −6.0 to −11.0 kcal mol−1) denoting a potential interaction causing FGF21 receptor response. FGF21 hepatic signaling was activated (1.1 to 2.3-fold enhance in ERK1/2 phosphorylation). CAE, TH, PCA, PB2, EPI, and CAT diminished PA-elicited lipid accumulation (5–86%, P < 0.05) by reducing fatty acid synthase expression, and stimulated lipolysis (1–87%, P < 0.05) through the up-regulation of lipoprotein lipase expression. CAE and therein-bioactive compounds, mainly TH and PCA, promoted glucose uptake (4–35%, P < 0.05) via the increase in the phosphorylation of the insulin receptor (2.2-fold, P < 0.05), protein kinase B (2.8-fold, P < 0.05), AMPKα (2.0-fold, P < 0.05), and ERK1/2 (2.8-fold, P < 0.05) phosphorylation. Oxidative stress was prevented (50–100%, P < 0.05), and the loss of mitochondrial content (15–100%, P < 0.05) and function, measured as ATP production, alleviated (28–100%, P < 0.05). Conclusions Results demonstrated that the major bioactive compounds, primarily TH and PCA, found in cocoa shell could activate FGF21 signaling and regulated hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism, preventing insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Funding Sources USDA-NIFA-HATCH, and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
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