Previous studies from our laboratory suggest that the internal airway perimeter (Pi) defined by the folded epithelial surface remains constant as the airways narrow. To test this hypothesis, we treated adjacent slices of resected lung lobes with either theophylline or carbachol and determined the dimensions of the airways in these lung slices. Transverse sections of contracted (n = 58) and relaxed (n = 55) airways were used to measure the Pi defined by the epithelial surface, lumen area (Ai), external perimeter (Pe) defined by the outer edge of the smooth muscle layer, and the external area (Ae). Wall area (WA = Ae - Ai) was calculated. The frequency distribution of internal perimeters was not significantly different for the contracted and relaxed airways, and when the square root of wall area was plotted against Pi, the regression lines for the contracted and relaxed airways were almost identical. The "relaxed" external perimeter was calculated Per = square root Pi2 + (4 pi WA), and the percentage of muscle shortening (PMS) was determined: PMS = [(Per - Pe)/Per] x 100. We conclude that Pi and WA are constant in airways whether the smooth muscle is relaxed or contracted and that Pi can be used as a marker of airway size and, under controlled conditions, can be used to calculate the smooth muscle shortening present in a given airway.

In this study, we evaluate the wettability of shale samples drilled in the Duvernay Formation, which is a source-rock reservoir located in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). We use reservoir oil and brine to conduct air-liquid contact angle and air-liquid spontaneous imbibition tests for wettability measurements. We characterize the shale samples by measuring pressure-decay permeability, effective porosity, initial oil and water saturations, mineralogy, total organic carbon (TOC) content, and conducting rock-eval pyrolysis tests. We also conduct Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses on the shale samples to characterize the location and size of pores. After evaluation of wettability, we conduct soaking experiments. First, we measure liquid-liquid contact angles for the droplets of the soaking fluids and reservoir oil equilibrated on surface of the rock samples. Then, we immerse the oil-saturated samples in the soaking fluids with different compositions and physical properties. The we record the oil volume produced due to spontaneous imbibition of the soaking fluids. The soaking fluids are characterized by measuring surface tension, interfacial tension (IFT), viscosity, and pH. We analyze the results of soaking tests and investigate the controlling parameters affecting oil recover factor (RF). The results of wettability measurements demonstrate that the shale samples have stronger wetting affinity to oil compared with brine. The positive correlations of TOC content with effective porosity and pressure-decay permeability suggest that the majority of connected pores are present within the organic matter. Organic porosity may explain the strong oil-wetness of the shale samples. The SEM/EDS analyses also show the abundance of organic nanopores within organic matter. The results of liquid-liquid contact angle tests show that a reduction in IFT of the soaking fluid leads to an increase in wetting affinity of rock to soaking fluid. The results also show that oil RF is higher for soaking fluids with lower IFT, which can be explained by wettability alteration. The shale samples have higher wetting affinity to soaking fluids with lower IFT, leading to an increase in the driving capillary pressure and, consequently to higher oil recovery by spontaneous imbibition. In addition, comparing the results of air-brine imbibition with soaking tests suggests that adding surfactant to the soaking fluid may alter the wettability of organic pores towards more water-wetness, leading to the displacement of oil from hydrophobic organic pores.

Summary In this study, we evaluate the wettability of shale plugs from the Duvernay Formation, which is a self-sourced reservoir in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. We use reservoir oil and flowback water (brine) to conduct air/liquid contact-angle and air/liquid spontaneous-imbibition tests for wettability evaluation. We characterize the shale samples by measuring pressure-decay permeability, effective porosity, initial oil and water saturations, mineralogy, and total-organic-carbon (TOC) content, and by conducting rock-eval pyrolysis tests. We also conduct scanning-electron-microscope (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analyses on the shale samples to characterize the location and size of pores. After evaluation of wettability, we conduct soaking tests. First, we measure liquid/liquid contact angles for the droplets of the soaking fluids and reservoir oil equilibrated on the surface of the oil-saturated plugs. Then, we conduct soaking tests by immersing the oil-saturated plugs in different soaking fluids, and record the oil volume produced from spontaneous imbibition of the soaking fluids. The soaking fluids are characterized by measuring surface tension (ST), interfacial tension (IFT), viscosity, and pH. We analyze the results of soaking tests and investigate the controlling parameters affecting oil recovery factor (RF). The results demonstrate that the shale samples have stronger wetting affinity toward oil compared with brine. The positive correlations of TOC content with effective porosity and pressure-decay permeability suggest that the majority of connected pores are within the organic matter. The strong oil-wetness of the shale samples can be explained by the abundance of organic porosity, verified by the SEM/EDS images. The results of liquid/liquid contact-angle tests show that the soaking fluid with lower IFT exhibits a stronger wetting affinity toward the shale. The results also show that oil RF is higher for the soaking fluids with lower IFT, which may be caused by wettability alteration. In addition, comparing the results of air/brine imbibition with those of the soaking tests indicates that adding nonionic surfactant to the soaking fluid may alter the wettability of hydrophobic organic pores toward less-oil-wet conditions, leading to the displacement of oil from organic pores.

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