Historically, men have enjoyed several advantages over women in their life chances. For example, men have had, on average, higher occupational status, a higher rate of self-employment, and higher incomes than women (Reskin 1993). Femaledominated occupations have been devalued, in part, because Americans consider work done by women less valuable, less important, and less difficult (England 1992). Men have also owned and controlled the great majority of businesses. In 1990 the self-employment rate 1 for men was 12%, whereas it was only 6% for women (Devine 1994). However, in the past several decades, women have made gains in occupational status, income, and business ownership. Many women are now employed in traditionally male occupations, and the pay gap between men and
This article applies theoretical and empirical insights on diffusion to a contemporary, important, and striking case in point: the groundswell of state legislation on and implementation of charter schools over the past decade. Drawing from several data sources and using event-history analyses, competing risks, and random-effects negative binomial regression, the analyses examine how interstate dynamics and intrastate attributes affect the adoption of legislation on and the creation of charter schools within states. The findings reveal a strong mimetic tendency among adjacent states to adopt charter school legislation and regional similarities in the creation of charter schools. Internal attributes of states, such as competition between the private and public school sectors, the relative strength of teachers' unions, the presence of racial competition, urbanization, and political party dominance likewise play a role, depending on whether the analytic focus is on the adoption of legislation or the implementation of policy. The authors conclude by discussing the implications of the results for understanding the forces underlying innovation and change in educational policy.
We examine the connection between personal network characteristics and the activation of ties for access to resources during routine times. We focus on factors affecting business owners' use of their core network ties to obtain legal, Joan, financial and expert advice. Owners rely more on core business ties when their core networks contain a high proportion of men, are very dense, and have high occupational heterogeneity. We conclude with suggestions for future research and implications for other populations in need of routine resources.
Using data from a spring 2020 survey of nearly 10,000 parents of elementary school parents in one large southeastern public school district, the authors investigate predictors of elementary school student engagement during the initial period of pandemic remote learning. The authors hypothesize that household material and technological resources, school programming and instructional strategies, and family social capital contribute to student engagement in remote learning. The analyses indicate that even after controlling for rich measures of family socioeconomic resources, students with access to high-speed Internet and Internet-enabled devices have higher levels of engagement. Exposure to more diverse socioemotional and academic learning opportunities further predicts higher levels of engagement. In addition, students whose families remained socially connected to other students’ families were more likely to engage online.
There is a growing abundance of research on outcomes of charter schools for children, teachers, and communities, yet a paucity of research on why and how charter schools form in the first place. This article presents unique data on charter school applications to show how the early stages of school formation are embedded in, if not driven by, an organizational and institutional context. Three organizational theories-neoinstitutional, population ecology, and resource dependence-are used to explain the formation of charter schools. The results suggest that educational organizational environments are indeed key in the process of generating charter schools. Nonreligious private schools increase the submission of charter school applications, while the density of extant charter schools in local districts-or saturation, in general-decreases the submission of applications. Finally, local political environments and legislative support matter as well. Implications for understanding the formation of charter schools are discussed, as is the more general importance of understanding educational options as a function of organizational environments.
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