The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic (ADOS-G) is a semistructured, standardized assessment of social interaction, communication, play, and imaginative use of materials for individuals suspected of having autism spectrum disorders. The observational schedule consists of four 30-minute modules, each designed to be administered to different individuals according to their level of expressive language. Psychometric data are presented for 223 children and adults with Autistic Disorder (autism), Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS) or nonspectrum diagnoses. Within each module, diagnostic groups were equivalent on expressive language level. Results indicate substantial interrater and test-retest reliability for individual items, excellent interrater reliability within domains and excellent internal consistency. Comparisons of means indicated consistent differentiation of autism and PDDNOS from nonspectrum individuals, with some, but less consistent, differentiation of autism from PDDNOS. A priori operationalization of DSM-IV/ICD-10 criteria, factor analyses, and ROC curves were used to generate diagnostic algorithms with thresholds set for autism and broader autism spectrum/PDD. Algorithm sensitivities and specificities for autism and PDDNOS relative to nonspectrum disorders were excellent, with moderate differentiation of autism from PDDNOS.
This study found that the facial action of moderately or widely opening the mouth is accompanied by brow raising in infants, thus producing "surprise" expressions in non-surprise situations. Infants (age = 5 months and 7 months) were videotaped as they were presented with toys that they often grasped and brought to their mouths. Episodes of mouth opening were identified and accompanying brow, nose, and eyelid movements were coded. Results indicated that mouth opening is selectively associated with raised brows rather than to other brow movements. Trace levels of eyelid raising also tended to accompany this facial configuration. The findings are discussed in terms of a dynamical systems theory of facial behavior and suggest that facial expression cannot be used as investigators' sole measure of "surprise" in infants.Numerous investigations (Ekman, 1982(Ekman, , 1989 have indicated that at least six distinct facial configurations are identified with specific discrete emotions by raters from a variety of Western and non-Western cultures. Despite recent challenges (Russell, 1994), these studies have provided some of the strongest and most widely replicated findings in the psychological literature (Ekman, 1994).Following the initial demonstrations of cross-cultural recognition, a number of reasonable proposals were advanced regarding the natural occurrence of these facial configurations and their relationship to emotion throughout the course of development. Regarding adults, several emotion theorists (Buck, 1988;Ekman, 1972;Izard, 1977) proposed that these facial configurations were "direct readouts" of emotion. That is, these expressions would be automatically produced by the experiencer unless he or she inhibited them in accord with cultural or personal display rules. Extending
Disciplinary records for 3rd through 8th grade students (n = 314) in an inner-city, public school were examined for one school year to assess students' variation in response to discipline. Rates of disciplinary referrals were compared for students who received no detentions or suspensions throughout the year ("never group" n = 117), students who received one or more detention or suspension in the fall but not in the spring ("fall group" n = 62), and students who received one or more detention or suspension in the fall and one or more detention or suspension in the spring ("fall + spring group" n = 75). Results indicated that during the fall, the "fall group" had nearly equivalent rates of referrals to the "fall + spring group"; however, the "fall group" exhibited significantly lower rates of referrals during winter and spring that were nearly equivalent to the "never group," as would be expected for a punishment procedure. In contrast, the "fall + spring group" evidenced increases in referrals across the year, suggesting the possibility that detentions and suspensions were functioning as rewards for this group. The "fall + spring group" was rated by teachers and peers at mid-year as highly aggressive, lacking social skills, and high on hyperactivity, whereas the "fall group" and the "never group" were statistically equivalent on teacher and peer ratings. Implications for mental health programs for urban schools are discussed, especially the need for alternatives to detention and suspension for the subset of students who account for the majority of school discipline.
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