The filamentous fungus Aspergillus niger exhibits great diversity in its phenotype. It is found globally, both as marine and terrestrial strains, produces both organic acids and hydrolytic enzymes in high amounts, and some isolates exhibit pathogenicity. Although the genome of an industrial enzyme-producing A. niger strain (CBS 513.88) has already been sequenced, the versatility and diversity of this species compel additional exploration. We therefore undertook wholegenome sequencing of the acidogenic A. niger wild-type strain (ATCC 1015) and produced a genome sequence of very high quality. Only 15 gaps are present in the sequence, and half the telomeric regions have been elucidated. Moreover, sequence information from ATCC 1015 was used to improve the genome sequence of CBS 513.88. Chromosome-level comparisons uncovered several genome rearrangements, deletions, a clear case of strain-specific horizontal gene transfer, and identification of 0.8 Mb of novel sequence. Single nucleotide polymorphisms per kilobase (SNPs/kb) between the two strains were found to be exceptionally high (average: 7.8, maximum: 160 SNPs/kb). High variation within the species was confirmed with exo-metabolite profiling and phylogenetics. Detailed lists of alleles were generated, and genotypic differences were observed to accumulate in metabolic pathways essential to acid production and protein synthesis. A transcriptome analysis supported up-regulation of genes associated with biosynthesis of amino acids that are abundant in glucoamylase A, tRNA-synthases, and protein transporters in the protein producing CBS 513.88 strain. Our results and data sets from this integrative systems biology analysis resulted in a snapshot of fungal evolution and will support further optimization of cell factories based on filamentous fungi.

No abstract

Here we characterize a highly efficient approach for protein confinement and enzyme immobilization in NH(2)- or HOOC- functionalized mesoporous silica (FMS) with pore sizes as large as tens of nanometres. We observed a dramatic increase of enzyme loading in both enzyme activity and protein amount when using appropriate FMS in comparison with unfunctionalized mesoporous silica and normal porous silica. With different protein loading density in NH(2)-FMS, the negatively charged glucose oxidase (GOX) displayed an immobilization efficiency (I(e), the ratio of the specific activity of the immobilized enzyme to the specific activity of the free enzyme in stock solution) in a range from 30% to 160%, while the same charged glucose isomerase (GI) showed an I(e) of 100% to 120%, and the positively charged organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) exhibited I(e) of more than 200% in HOOC-FMS. The enzyme-FMS composite was stained with the charged gold nanoparticles and imaged by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy showed no major secondary structural change for the enzymes entrapped in FMS. Thanks to the large, rigid, open pore structure of FMS, the reaction rate and K(m) of the entrapped enzymes in FMS were comparable to those of the free enzymes in solution. In principle, the general approach described here should be applicable to many enzymes, proteins, and protein complexes since both pore sizes and functional groups of FMS are controllable.

No abstract

The morphology of citric acid production strains of Aspergillus niger is sensitive to a variety of factors, including the concentration of manganese (Mn 2؉ ). Upon increasing the Mn 2؉ concentration in A. niger (ATCC 11414) cultures to 14 ppb or higher, the morphology switches from pelleted to filamentous, accompanied by a rapid decline in citric acid production. The molecular mechanisms through which Mn 2؉ exerts effects on morphology and citric acid production in A. niger cultures have not been well defined, but our use of suppression subtractive hybridization has identified 22 genes responsive to Mn 2؉ . Fifteen genes were differentially expressed when A. niger was grown in media containing 1,000 ppb of Mn 2؉ (filamentous form), and seven genes were expressed in 10 ppb of Mn 2؉ (pelleted form). Of the 15 filament-associated genes, seven are novel and eight share 47 to 100% identity with genes from other organisms. Five of the pellet-associated genes are novel, and the other two genes encode a pepsin-type protease and polyubiquitin. All 10 genes with deduced functions are either involved in amino acid metabolism-protein catabolism or cell regulatory processes. Northern blot analysis showed that the transcripts of all 22 genes were rapidly enhanced or suppressed by Mn 2؉ . Steady-state mRNA levels of six selected filament-associated genes remained high during 5 days of culture in a filamentous state and remained low under pelleted growth conditions. The opposite behavior was observed for four selected pellet-associated genes. The full-length cDNA of the filament-associated clone, Brsa-25, was isolated. Antisense expression of Brsa-25 permitted pelleted growth and increased citrate production at concentrations of Mn 2؉ that were higher than the parent strain could tolerate. These results suggest the involvement of the newly isolated genes in the regulation of A. niger morphology.The morphology of filamentous fungi in fermentation processes is critical to maximum product output. The optimal morphology for the production of organic acids, enzymes, and secondary metabolites differs among fungi, but growth as small pellets is usually correlated with highly efficient fungal processes. For example, pelleted morphology is necessary for maximum production of citric acid by Aspergillus niger (9), itaconic acid by Aspergillus terreus (30), pravastatin precursor by Penicillium citrinum (17,47), and certain heterologous proteins by A. niger (57). It has been reported that filamentous growth is preferable for penicillin production by Penicillium chrysogenum (49) and fumaric acid production by Rhizopus arrhizus (6). The ability to obtain and maintain a particular morphology is one of the key parameters in the development of productive fungal fermentations. Empirically determined process conditions, such as agitation, dissolved oxygen concentration, substrate (carbon) concentration, nitrogen, phosphorous, and micronutrient concentrations, pH, ionic strength, and inoculum concentration have all been demonstrated to have effects...