Chemically defended animals often display conspicuous color patterns that predators learn to associate with their unprofitability and subsequently avoid. Such animals (i.e., aposematic), deter predators by stimulating their visual and chemical sensory channels. Hence, aposematism is considered to be "multimodal." The evolution of warning signals (and to a lesser degree their accompanying chemical defenses) is fundamentally linked to natural selection by predators. Lately, however, increasing evidence also points to a role of sexual selection shaping warning signal evolution. One of the species in which this has been shown is the wood tiger moth, Arctia plantaginis, which we here put forward as a promising model to investigate multimodality in aposematic and sexual signaling. A. plantaginis is an aposematic diurnal moth which exhibits sexually dimorphic coloration as well as sex-limited polymorphism in part of its range. The anti-predator function of its coloration and, more recently, its chemical defenses (even when experimentally decoupled from the visual signals), has been well-demonstrated. Interestingly, recent studies have revealed differences between the two male morphs in mating success, suggesting a role of coloration in mate choice or attraction, and providing a possible explanation for its sexual dimorphism in coloration. Here, we: (1) review the lines of evidence showing the role of predation pressure and sexual selection in the evolution of multimodal aposematic signals in general, and in the wood tiger moth in particular;(2) establish gaps in current research linking sexual selection and predation as selective pressures on aposematic signals by reviewing a sample of the literature published in the last 30 years; (3) highlight the need of identifying suitable systems to address simultaneously the effect of natural and sexual selection on multimodal aposematic signals; and (4) propose directions for future research to test how aposematic signals can evolve under natural and sexual selection.
El ecosistema de páramo es uno de los más sensibles al cambio climático y a la alteración en el uso de suelo. Estos cambios generan modificaciones fisiológicas en las especies y en sus ciclos de vida; aumentan la posibilidad de las plantas de ser atacadas por organismos patógenos y de perder la oportunidad de colonizar nuevos nichos. Recientemente se ha reportado sobre Espeletia sp. herbivoría a causa de insectos fitófagos y hongos que la llevan a la mortalidad. El conocimiento de la biología y el efecto sobre las plantas de estos insectos, contribuirá a la toma de decisiones relacionadas con la gestión ambiental, monitoreo, manejo sostenible y preservación del ecosistema. Este estudio fue realizado en la microcuenca de la quebrada Calostros del Parque Nacional Natural Chingaza, con el fin de determinar los insectos del orden lepidóptera asociados con el daño en las estructuras vegetativas de los individuos del género Espeletia sp., así mismo caracterizar la sintomatología vinculada con el daño que pueden producir estos insectos sobre las plantas de frailejón en diferentes alturas. Esto mediante la colecta manual de larvas y el seguimiento en 30 frailejones durante un periodo de seis meses. Se observaron tres larvas de orden lepidóptera afiliadas al daño sobre Espeletia sp., no obstante, solo una se encuentra ampliamente distribuida y ocasiona deterioro severo sobre los frailejones. Esta fue identificada como Hellinsia sp. (especie no reportada) responsable de la mayor lesión al meristemo apical de las plantas. Entre los perjuicios que ocasiona el insecto Hellinsia sp., se resalta la pérdida de tejidos, clorosis severa y deformación de las hojas. Ahora bien, se observó que los individuos de Espeletia sp. pueden tener la capacidad de continuar con su desarrollo normal después de ser hospederos de las larvas de Hellinsia sp.
In Leucauge orb-web spiders, females form mating plugs, which play a part in cryptic female choice after they evaluate male performance during courtship and mating. Our aim was to assess sexual behavior and mating plug formation of Leucauge mariana from Colombia (CO). We carried out mating trials to describe in detail courtship and mating behavior of sexual pairs from the CO population, and then compared the results to previously collected data from a Costa Rican population (CR). In addition, we assessed the amount of sperm transferred during mating predict plug formation in CO pairs. All CO virgin females mated (n = 23), and mating plug formation occurred in only 11 cases (48%). In contrast, all CR virgin females mated (n = 43) and 74% formed mating plugs. None of the male courtship or mating behaviors that we measured in CO pairs predicted mating plug formation, in contrast to previous reports from CR. Mating plugs of CO consisted of a matrix of unknown composition (77.2%) and encapsulated and decapsulated sperm (22.8%). In CR, plug composition varied in color and consistency, but also comprised a matrix with encapsulated and decapsulated sperm. We observed female cannibalism of males in CO pairs, which had never been reported in CR pairs. Some female displays during courtship and mating were unique to each population. Different female preferences could explain the observed geographic differences between L. mariana in male traits and behaviors that could, in turn, promote reproductive isolation. More studies are needed to test this hypothesis. K E Y W O R D Scopulatory plug, cryptic female choice, intraspecific variation, sexual behavior, sperm counts
Despite the urban and landscape impact caused by Drymoea veliterna (Druce, 1885) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) larvae on trees of the genus Croton L. (Euphorbiaceae) in the Neotropics, there is no information about its biology and reproductive traits. In this study, we describe the life cycle and reproductive traits of this species. Its life cycle lasts approximately 56 days, the larvae develop during 24 days on average and the longevity of the females is 7 days on average. Females have an average fecundity of 207 eggs. Regarding their reproductive system, the presence of previtellogenic eggs in the reproductive tract of the females is emphasized. The bursa copulatrix and a highly sclerotized signum is depicted. The number of spermatophores found in the reproductive tract of the females was quantified. Male and female genitalia were schematized.
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