Objective: To identify attention profiles at 7 and 13 years, and transitions in attention profiles over time in children born very preterm (VP; <30 weeks’ gestation) and full term (FT), and examine predictors of attention profiles and transitions. Methods: Participants were 167 VP and 60 FT children, evaluated on profiles across five attention domains (selective, shifting and divided attention, processing speed, and behavioral attention) at 7 and 13 years using latent profile analyses. Transitions in profiles were assessed with contingency tables. For VP children, biological and social risk factors were tested as predictors with a multinomial logistic regression. Results: At 7 and 13 years, three distinct profiles of attentional functioning were identified. VP children were 2–3 times more likely to show poorer attention profiles compared with FT children. Transition patterns between 7 and 13 years were stable average, stable low, improving, and declining attention. VP children were two times less likely to have a stable average attention pattern and three times more likely to have stable low or improving attention patterns compared with FT children. Groups did not differ in declining attention patterns. For VP children, brain abnormalities on neonatal MRI and greater social risk at 7 years predicted stable low or changing attention patterns over time. Conclusions: VP children show greater variability in attention profiles and transition patterns than FT children, with almost half of the VP children showing adverse attention patterns over time. Early brain pathology and social environment are markers for attentional functioning.

ObjectiveTo compare moderate-to-late preterm born (32–36 weeks’ gestation) to full term born (≥37 weeks’ gestation) children in cognitive and behavioural functioning at the age of 6 years and assess which toddler skills predict later cognitive and behavioural functioning.DesignA prospective longitudinal study with a cohort of 88 moderate-to-late preterm and 83 full term born Dutch children, followed from 18 months to 6 years of age. Orienting, alerting and executive attention skills were assessed at 18 months (corrected for prematurity), and cognitive, motor and language skills (Bayley-III-NL) at 24 months (corrected for prematurity). At 6 years (corrected for prematurity), cognitive (indices of IQ; WPPSI-III-NL) and behavioural functioning (CBCL/6-18) were assessed. Group differences and potential predictors were examined with MANCOVAs and hierarchical regression analyses.ResultsAt 6 years, moderate-to-late preterm born children performed poorer than full term born children on cognitive processing speed, and they showed more behavioural attention problems. Attention problems at 6 years were predicted by poorer orienting attention skills at 18 months, while lower performance IQ was predicted by poorer alerting attention skills at 18 months. Full Scale IQ and Verbal IQ at 6 years were predicted by language skills at 24 months. Moderate-to-late preterm and full term born children showed some differing correlational patterns in the associations between early skills and later functioning, although in further analyses predictors appeared the same for both groups.ConclusionsModerate-to-late preterm born children show specific vulnerabilities at primary school-age, particularly in cognitive processing speed and behavioural attention problems. Cognitive and behavioural functioning at 6 years can be predicted by differentiated attention skills at 18 months and language skills at 24 months.

Objective Attention difficulties are commonly reported by caregivers in school-aged children born moderate-to-late preterm (MLPT; 32–36 weeks’ gestation). We aimed to assess distinct aspects of attentional functioning (i.e. orienting, alerting and executive attention, processing speed and behavioral components) in children born MLPT and full term (FT), profiles of attentional functioning, and associated risk factors such as preterm birth. Methods Participants were 170 (87 MLPT and 83 FT) children, evaluated on cognitive and behavioral attention aspects at 6 years of age. We used a variable-centered approach to compare attentional functioning of children born MLPT and FT at group level, and a person-centered approach to identify profiles of attentional functioning. Neonatal and demographic characteristics of these profiles were compared. Results The variable-centered approach showed that at group level children born MLPT had poorer orienting attention and processing speed, and behavioral attention than children born FT. The person-centered approach revealed four profiles: (a) normal attentional functioning, (b) overall poorer attention, (c) poorer cognitive attention, and (d) behavioral attention problems. Children born MLPT were overrepresented in each of the suboptimal attention profiles, and were more dispersed across profiles than children born FT. Conclusions Children born MLPT are at increased risk of difficulties in some attention aspects, but at group level differences with children born FT are small. However, children born MLPT show considerable variation in the nature of attention difficulties and are twice as likely to show a suboptimal attention profile, indicating a cumulation of poorer attention scores.

Language development in toddlerhood forms the foundation for speech and language comprehension throughout childhood. Children born moderately preterm are at increased risk for problems in receptive and expressive language functioning, and they may need specific support or interventions. To understand the underlying mechanisms of language development, an integrated model of gestational age, attention capacities, and maternal sensitivity was examined in relation to receptive and expressive language functioning in toddlerhood. Our sample included 221 children (gestational age between 32–41 + 6 weeks; 54.7% born moderately preterm; 51.6% boys; 69.1% highly educated mothers). At 18 months (corrected age), attention capacities were measured using an eye-tracking procedure and maternal sensitivity was observed during mother-child interaction. Language was assessed at 24 months (corrected age). Results showed children with a higher gestational age scored higher on receptive language. This association was direct, as well as indirect through the child’s alerting attention. Expressive language was related to maternal sensitivity. Gestational age and alerting attention capacities specifically were related to language comprehension, whereas maternal sensitivity was related to speech. As language comprehension and speech in toddlerhood show different associations with biological, child, contextual, and regulation factors, they should be viewed as separate constructs in research and practice.

Attention problems hinder many children in their cognitive and social emotional development. Children at risk for developmental problems, like preterm born infants, are specifically known for attention difficulties. Early identification of attention difficulties is important for application of appropriate stimulation in trying to reduce further problems. Specifically designed instruments with good psychometric characteristics are needed to show difficulties in attention, that may contribute to early identification. The Utrecht Tasks of Attention in Toddlers using Eye tracking (UTATE) is an instrument to measure orienting, alerting and executive attention capacities in young children. Reliability and validity of the UTATE are specifically addressed in three studies, reported in this paper. A sample of 95 term born children assessed at 18 months of age was used that provided data for both the second and third study reported here. In addition, three other small samples were used, of which the first consisted of 12 children at 18 months with test-retest data available that are reported in the first study. Two other samples that were used in the third study, consisted of 14 children measured at 12 months, and 15 children examined at 24 months. The UTATE resulted in reliable information on eye movements and some first support for construct and predictive validity was found. Low scores on the UTATE at 18 months were found to be related to slower cognitive development as measured with the Bayley-III-NL at 24 months. Furthermore, a first indication that the UTATE is able to detect some age differences in attention was found. It is concluded that the UTATE can be used to study attention capacities in toddlers that underlie cognitive functioning and development, but further research is necessary.

Moderately preterm born children (MPT) are at increased risk for behavior problems compared to full term born (FT) children. MPT children may receive less optimal parenting, and in response, may develop behavior problems. Our aims were to examine whether parenting behavior and mother–child interaction quality mediate the association between birth status and child behavior problems. Participants were 120 MPT children and 100 FT children. At 18 months of age, mothers reported on their parenting behavior (support and structure), and mother–child interaction (sensitivity and limit-setting) was observed. At 6 years of age, mothers reported on children’s behavior problems. Using structural equation modeling, birth status was found to predict attention problems, but not internalizing and externalizing problems. Mothers of MPT children set less appropriate limits than mothers of FT children at 18 months of age. More maternal structure at 18 months predicted fewer internalizing and externalizing problems, but not attention problems, at 6 years. These associations between parenting behavior, mother–child interaction quality, and child behavior problems were similar for MPT and FT children. Our findings indicate that maternal structure in toddlerhood is an important predictor of later internalizing and externalizing problems for both MPT and FT children.

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