Catalytic atom-economic hydrothiolation of cyclopropyl acetylenes was developed. Using Pd/NHC complex as a precatalyst, regioselective addition of thiols to cyclopropyl acetylenes was successfully performed, leading to densely functionalized compounds in excellent selectivity (up to 99:1) and high yields (up to 99%). Formation of Markovnikov-type products by insertion of alkyne into the Pd−S bond was confirmed experimentally. Molecular dynamics of the alkyne insertion into the Pd−S bond was performed computationally to identify key factors controlling the remarkable regioselectivity of this process. The fundamental question of how a small difference in activation energies can result in very high regioselectivity has been addressed by experimental methods combined with computational modeling. We show that the insertion of alkyne into the Pd−S bond proceeds by an asynchronous mechanism, which starts with metal−carbon binding and resolves into diverse transient structures. We further demonstrate that dynamic involvement of these structures ensures regioselectivity of the entire process, thus providing a mechanistic link that has long been missing. Alkyne insertion into the metal−heteroatom bond is a fundamental elementary step and a corner stone of catalysis and organometallic chemistry that works for a large variety of metals and heteroatoms. Mastering its Markovnikov vs anti-Markovnikov selectivity provides powerful opportunities for the design of selective functionalization routes.
A common assumption that dimeric metal complexes in many catalytic systems represent a resting state and are not directly involved in catalytic processes was revised in a combined experimental and theoretical study. On-cycle participation of dimeric metal complexes, rather than typically assumed off-cycle involvement, was revealed, and advantageous performance in terms of improved selectivity was observed. The conceptual rationalization for the participation of dimeric species in the catalytic cycle was developed. The Pd-catalyzed hydrothiolation process (where strong Pd−S binding is well established and a persistent opinion for the inactive/poisoning role of dimeric species is presumed) was evaluated as a challenging system to test the concept. Activation of an (NHC)Pd(Cl)(acac) precatalyst (NHC�N-heterocyclic carbene and acac�acetylacetonate) under the reaction conditions produced monomeric (NHC)Pd(SPh) 2 or dimeric (NHC) 2 Pd 2 (SPh) 4 species depending on the steric bulkiness of the NHC ligand. Dimeric complexes possessed higher selectivity and tolerated disulfide impurities in contrast to monomeric complexes. Quantum chemical modeling suggested that dimeric catalysis proceeds through the opening of only one (μ-SPh)−Pd bridging bond with retention of the dimeric structure. The second bridging bond is maintained, which prevents the monomerization of the complex. Catalytically active species were detected in a hydrothiolation reaction by high-resolution mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. Proving the opportunity for productive homogeneous catalysis via strongly coordinated dimeric metal species opens new opportunities for catalyst design in the increased nuclearity dimension.
The processes involving the capture of free radicals were explored by performing DFT molecular dynamics simulations and modeling of reaction energy profiles. We describe the idea of a radical recognition assay, where not only the presence of a radical but also the nature/reactivity of a radical may be assessed. The idea is to utilize a set of radical-sensitive molecules as tunable sensors, followed by insight into the studied radical species based on the observed reactivity/selectivity. We utilize this approach for selective recognition of common radicals—alkyl, phenyl, and iodine. By matching quantum chemical calculations with experimental data, we show that components of a system react differently with the studied radicals. Possible radical generation processes were studied involving model reactions under UV light and metal-catalyzed conditions.
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